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=== Aristotle's "Rhetoric" ===
=== Aristotle's "Rhetoric" ===
* Aristotle = 4th Century B.C. Greek philosopher who deeply influenced Western thought
* his work, "Rhetoric" or "Art of Rhetoric" studied the art of persuasion
* in it, Aristotle clarified a center ground between the "sophists", who cared only for persuasion, regardless for truth, and Plato (and thus, Socrates) who focused on philosophy and absolute truths
** Plato felt that rhetoric was inherently deceptive, so only philosophy, which focused on discovering the truth
** Aristotle's insight was that rhetoric is a key tool for the discovery of truth


== Persuasion ==
== Persuasion ==
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== Aristotle's Modes of Persuasion ==
== Aristotle's Modes of Persuasion ==
* the commonly referred to modes of persuasion are '''''ethos, logos''''' and '''''pathos'''''
* Aristotle also discussed a fourth mode of persuasion, '''''kairos''''' (see below)
* Aristotle distinguished types of <u>persuasive situations</u>, including
** '''''epideictic''''' = ceremonial speeches (praise or condemnation)
** '''''forensic''''' = judicial, especially for establishing guilt or innocence
** '''''deliberative''''' = persuasion of an audience on an issue or idea
*** the purpose of deliberative rhetoric was to pursue the '''''koinon''','' or common, or greater, good
*** deliberative rhetoric was to be used in the four '''''politeia''''', democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy and monarchy
* and he distinguished two types of "rhetorical proofs"
** proof = a logical argument that is sufficient to establish a truth
** '''''enthymeme''''' = proof by logic (syllogism, or deductive reasoning)
*** i.e., if A= B, and B=C, then A=C
** '''''paradeigma''''' = proof by example
*** in order to establish a general rule
* he argued that philosophy is too narrow a discipline for practical purposes
** while philosophy is useful for reasoning to a scientific (knowledgeable) certainty or truth
** rhetoric has a larger, practical role in human affairs
* In ''Rhetoric'', Aristotle outlined three main categories of persuasive techniques to employ upon an audience
** (note that the appeal must have an audience!)
** ''ethos, logos'' & ''pathos''
* Aristotle agrees with Plato that persuasion can be deceptive and abusive,
** thus while employing "pathos" (passion, emotion), a speaker must also exhibit "ethos" (see below)
=== Ethos ===
* ethical appeal to establish speaker's credibility and character
** most commonly taught in high school as "appeal to authority" or the "credibility" of the speaker
** wherein the speaker establishes expertise, knowledge, authority or credibility
* however, Aristotle's use of '''''eunoia''''' is essential to understand the meaning of "ethos"
** an "ethos" is a common set of values
** thus the mode of persuasion of ethos must appeal to and reinforce the beliefs, character, and ideals of the audience
*** it is from that commonality with the audience that the speaker earns credibility
* for Aristotle ethos consists of a speaker's
** '''''phronesis''''' = wisdom and good judgment
** '''''arete''''' = excellence or virtue
** '''''eunoia''''' = good will between the speaker and the audience
* accordingly, a speaker's credibility may be impugned (disputed) if
** speaker lacks expertise (i.e., speaker lacks authority, experience or knowledge to speak about the topic)
** speaker has a personal interest in the outcome of the debate (i.e., has a personal bias, thus lacks credibility)
** speaker has an ulterior motive in the outcome of the debate (i.e. has an additional reason for taking a position)
=== Logos ===
* reason
=== Pathos ===
* appeal to the emotions of an audience via
** sympathy (''I feel bad for you'') or empathy (''I know how you feel'')
=== the three Modes of Persuasion circularity ===
* while not explicit in Aristotle, we can see that each of the modes can be interconnected or self-referential to one another:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Reinforced or Dual Modes of Persuasion
!Multi-modal argument
!Ethos
!Logos
!Pathos
|-
|A common or shared emotional experience w/ the audience ("I have suffered with you")
|''y''
|
|''y''
|-
|A common emotional experience that has a logical conclusion ("Starving babies is mean and also kills them")
|
|''y''
|''y''
|-
|A logical argument that leads to a common and/or emotional experience ("If we continue this madness, we will all die"
|''y''
|''y''
|''y''
|}
=== Kairos ===
* a well-timed appeal that stays within the context of the moment
* ''kairos'' means "the right, critical, or opportune moment"
** arguing something at the right time
** keeping to the persuasive context


== Rhetorical devices list ==
== Rhetorical devices list ==
* see above for Ethos, Logos and Pathos
* note
** some of these rhetorical devices may be used to create false or misleading arguments or logical fallacies, or to impugn (insult, insincerely attack) another person or position
** many of these devices are also called "literary devices" and so are listed within that category, as well
** see [[Logical fallacy|Logical fallacies]] and [[Literary devices]]


=== ad hominem ===
=== ad hominem ===


=== apophasis ===
=== alliteration ===


* also called "'''Paralipsis'''"
* repetition of sounds
** ''tightening tentacles terribly perturbs our tentative template''
 
*
 
=== aporia ===
 
* expression of doubt
** ''when will this ever end, that is our problem''
 
=== assonance ===
 
=== cacophony ===
 
=== consonance ===
 
=== devices of counterarguments ===
 
==== diasyrmus ====
 
* a ridiculous comparison in order to dismiss a counter argument
 
==== derision ====
 
* ridicule or satire of an opposing argument
** ''You believe that? I have a bridge to sell you!''
 
==== procatalepsis ====
 
* an argument that anticipates a possible objection
* then rebuts those objections
 
=== enthymeme ===
 
* an incomplete logical argument that begs the listener to fill in the answer or one that is already understood
** ''You can bet he'd never do that. Well, not if he's the kind of person he thinks himself to be.''
 
=== hyperbole ===
 
* exaggeration for effect
 
=== hypophora ===
 
* ask a question, then proceed to answer it
 
=== irony ===
 
=== figurative or literary devices ===
 
==== imagery ====
 
==== metaphor ====
 
==== simile ====
 
=== metanoia ===
 
* re-expressing a statement in a stronger or lesser way
* ''Her idea changed our country; indeed, it changed the world!''
 
=== metonymy ===
 
* a reference to a person or thing though an office or attribute
** ''the White House'' (the president)
** ''my heart beats for you'' (love, care)
** ''those suits care only about themselves'' (corporate leaders)
 
=== onomatopoeia ===
 
* using words that sound like the mean
 
=== paralipsis ===
 
* see apophasis
 
=== personification ===
 
=== repetition devices ===
 
==== anadiplosis ====
 
* repeating a word or idea between sentence parts
** ''to each a duck, ducks for all!''
** ''whosoever suffers it, suffers the most''
 
==== anaphora ====
 
* repeating a word at the beginning of each clause, sentence or paragraph
 
==== antanaclasis ====
 
* repeating a word without interruption
** ''yes, yes, yes''
** ''why? why? why?''
 
==== apophasis ====
* also called '''paralipsis'''
* author mentions an argument or fact in order to deny it or to deny using it
* author mentions an argument or fact in order to deny it or to deny using it
* also used to mention something indirectly
* also used to mention something indirectly
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* see [[wikipedia:Apophasis|Apophasis - Wikipedia]]
* see [[wikipedia:Apophasis|Apophasis - Wikipedia]]


=== paralipsis ===


* see Apophasis
understatement


[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Language Arts]]
[[Category:Language Arts]]
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