SAT Digital Reading and Writing Test quick start guide: Difference between revisions

=== Finite verb===  

*has a subject

*finite verbs form the core of a sentence or clause

*"is" and "are" are finite verbs

**= conjugation of the verb "to be", which is a linking verb

**IDENTIFY them in a sentence, then match them to their subject

* dependent clauses have finite verbs, so identify the subject-verb match in a dependent clause in order not to confuse it with the subject-verb match of the main or independent clause  

**ex.  ''The thing I like most about her is her sunny attitude''

***S-V of main clause = Thing + is

=== Non-finite verb ===  

*does not have a subject

*non-finite verbs act as a noun (gerund), adjective (past or present participle) or infinitive ("to" form of a verb)

*for the SAT, the most important non-finite verb is the present participle adjective  

**= the '''-ing''' form of a non-finite verb acting as an adjective

***note that non-finite verbs acting as nouns, called gerunds, are also in the '''-ing''' form of the verb

**present participles are used to add information to an independent clause

*** ''ex. Driving carefully, she made it home safely in the storm''  

****= "She drove carefully in the storm. She made it home safely."

****we can combine those two sentences into a more compact sentence by using the non-finite verb "driving"

===Linking verb===

*a finite verb (has a subject) that "links" a noun or adjective (the complement) to the subject

*ex. ''She is a doctor''

**"she" = subject

**"is" = linking verb

*linking verbs do not have objects

**instead they have "subject complements"

**in the sentence, ''She is a doctor''

*** "doctor" = subject complement noun

***"doctor" is not the object of the verb "is"

***instead, the verb "is" links the complement noun "doctor" to the subject "she"

**in the sentence, ''The patient feels sick''

***"sick" = subject complement adjective

***"sick" is an adjective so it cannot be an object (which is a noun)

***so, the verb "feels" links the complement adjective "sick" to the subject "patient"

*for the SAT, note that  

**linking verbs have subjects

***thus "is" and "are" are finite verbs with subjects to match to

**linking verbs do not have objects

***instead, they have "complements

==Verb tense, conjugation and subject-verb matching quick start guide==

*"conjugation" means "to inflect" a verb according to the "person" of its subject

**"inflection" = word ending changes  

***i.e., "go" >> "going", or "go" >> "goes"

**"person" = the "voice" or "perspective" of the subject of a sentence

===Person===

!Singular  

|I

|he / she / it

(ex. ''the lions roar'')  

===Conjugation===  

*matches subject and verb

**or, the verb-ending matches the person of the subject

!singular  

| We are

|You are  

| You go

| They go

===Tense===

*tense = verb forms that indicate time (when)

**past, present, future

**and sub-categories of them

*for the SAT, know that the present perfect '''HAS''' and '''HAVE''' verb forms are PRESENT TENSE

!Simple present

!Present Perfect  

| It works  

|It is working  

| It interacts  

| It is doing

| Plural

|They '''have''' interacted  

|They do  

!Simple present

| It '''had''' worked

|It was doing  

| They were interacting

==Sentences quick start guide==

*A sentence is a grammatically correct, complete thought.

*A sentence must:

**contain a subject and verb

***i.e. a finite verb

**form a complete thought

*types of sentences:  

**a simple sentence has a single independent clause

**a compound sentence has two or more independent clauses (see below)

**a complex sentence has an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses

***and/or phrases, especially participle phrases (see below)

===Sentence core===  

*the "core" of a sentence is its subject-verb

*for the SAT, identify the "sentence core" in order to

**comprehend the sentence

**identify modifying, or non-essential, parts

**correctly answer subject-verb match questions

===Sentence parts===

*we can divide a sentence into two core parts:  

**SUBJECT and PREDICATE

*SUBJECT = the perspective of the sentence (i.e. the "doer")

*PREDICATE = the action or idea of the sentence

! PREDICATE

| bites  

|}  

*additional information may be added using "modifiers" and "complements"

*'''modifiers''' add important information but are not essential to a grammatically complete sentence  

**modifiers include articles

the doer or perspective  

| ''from''

|''dog''  

| colspan="8" | sentence core:

==Clauses quick start guide==

*a clause has a finite verb

===independent clause===

*has a finite verb

*makes a complete thought

**i.e., if by itself it would make a (simple) sentence

===dependent clause===  

*has a finite verb

*does not make a complete thought

**i.e. by itself it would not make a sentence

*dependent clauses add information to an independent clause

====Subordinate clause====

*"subordinate" = "below" or "under"

*it is subordinate to the IC

*it is "subordinated" by a "subordinating conjunction":

| subordinating

| ''subject''  

====Relative clause (also called "adjective clause")====  

*adds modifying information

*is a dependent clause

*introduced by the '''relative pronouns''' ''that, which, who, whose''

|'''fell'''

|'''which'''

|''subject''  

|''prepositional phrase''  

 

*note: if we used the wording, "The snow fell all night, which meant school canceled," we would then have the clause "school canceled" (subject-verb) as a dependent (noun) clause within the first dependent (relative) clause:  

**i.e. ''The snow fell all night, <font style="background-color: yellow;">which meant</font> <font style="background-color: lightgreen;">school canceled</font>''  

***<font style="background-color: yellow;">relative clause</font>

***<font style="background-color: lightgreen;">noun clause</font>

**the dependent marker "that" is assumed (thus can be omitted):  

***''The snow fell all night, which meant that school canceled''  

**the SAT will not measure students directly on noun clauses, although sentences may include them

*for more on noun clauses, see [[SAT Writing section techniques, strategies & approaches|SAT Writing section:#noun clause]] or [[Clause (grammar)#noun clause|Grammar: Clause#noun clause]]  

====Relative clause within an IC:====  

*Relative clauses may come in between an independent clause's subject and predicate

*the SAT frequently measures this sentence form:

**in order to confuse students about subject-verb matching

**in order to confuse students about punctuation

*ex.:

| colspan="5" style="text-align:center" | '''Relative Clause (DC)'''

|''object phrase''  

|}  

*Note: on this sentence, the SAT might try to confuse the student with a mismatch of the singular subject "study" and singular verb "shows"

**by selecting the plural object of the relative clause "samples" and incorrectly matching it to the plural verb "show"

**the test might also try to confuse students over the tense of the past-tense "used" and present-tense "shows"

*Here's another depiction of a relative clause that fits between the subject and verb of an independent clause:

*ex., for the sentence

*** IC subject-verb = "dog has"

***DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "that barks"

* ex., for the sentence  

*** '''The friend that I made in France last year will visit this summer'''

**** IC subject-verb = "friend will visit"

****DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "I made"

**** DC relative pronoun = "that"  

*****here, the relative pronoun "that" is acting as a "conjunction" or "dependent marker"

******as it marks or sets up the the relative clause

====BIG IDEAS for relative clauses====  

*with the relative pronoun "'''that'''" <u>no punctuation is used</u>

**("that" may be preceded or followed by a parenthetical element that uses parentheses, commas or dashes)

**the SAT will frequently ask to place a semicolon or colon after "that" -- this is incorrect

*if coming in between the subject and verb, the relative pronoun "'''which'''" may or may not be separated by commas

**if "that" can not be substituted, "which" uses a comma

*do not confuse the subject-verb of the relative clause with the subject-verb of the independent clause (IC)

== Phrases quick start guide==  

*a phrase is two or more words that do not contain a finite verb

*phrases add information

**especially to add information to either a subject or predicate

! play

| verb

|object phrase  

===Prepositional phrases===

*identify prepositional phrases (see [[SAT Writing section techniques, strategies & approaches#prepositional%20phrase|SAT Writing section #prepositional phrase]] for more)

*the noun that follows the preposition is its object

*the noun that precedes the preposition is modified by the prepositional phrase

**''I left the keys <u>on the desk</u>''  

***the noun (object) "keys" is modified by the prepositional phrase "on the desk"

**or, if separated by a verb, the noun is the subject and the prepositional phrase serves as the subject or verb complement (like an adverb)

***''The keys are <u>on the desk</u>''

****"on" is the preposition and "desk" is its object

****the prepositional phrase "on the desk" is the subject complement of "keys" (connected by the linking verb "are")

***''He ran <u>up the hill</u>''  

****"up the hill" is an adverbial prepositional phrase that modifies the verb "ran"  

*The SAT will try to confuse students between the subject of a clause and the object of a preposition  

**note that the object of a preposition <u>is never the subject of a clause</u>  

===Participle phrases ===

*participles are the verb forms of using ''-ing'' and ''-ed''

**these may be finite or non-finite (see "Verbs" guide)

*non-finite participles do not have a subject and may act as nouns ("gerund") or adjectives (present or past participle adjective)

!Participle as finite verb

!Participle as non-finite verb

|''If you '''are studying''', you will get higher grades.''  

====Participle phrase BIG IDEAS====

*The SAT will:

**try to fool the student into mis-matching a subject with a non-finite participle

**ask to combine two sentences or clauses using a participle phrase

***i.e., going from "Eight graders take Algebra. Ninth graders then have to take Geometry."

****to "After taking Algebra in eighth grade, ninth graders take Geometry"

==Punctuation quick start guide==

=== periods . ===  

*periods do '''ONE''' thing =

#separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences

----------------------------------------------------------

*What PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:

*periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences

*elimination:  

**if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, the period is wrong

***i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense

*if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong

*note that "interjection" (a quick remark or interruption) or "imperative" (a command) VERBS contain an implied SUBJECT  

** so they can create a complete sentence or independent clause:

**ex.

***"Go to the store." = "[you] Go to the store."

***"Take this idea, for example."

****= "[you] Take this idea, for example." << as a sentence or independent clause

====semicolons ;====  

*combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them  

**as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts

*semicolons do (almost) '''ONE''' thing:

*note that semicolons can -- but rarely:

**separate a list of IC's:  

**a semicolon may also be used as a "super comma" in order to emphasize separate elements in a list of common examples, usually following a colon:

***as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing."

****ex. "''On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''

****the "super comma" does not have to follow a colon, so we could write:  

*****''"On our trip, we will visit tons of places, including in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''

***the "super comma" is rarely used in practice and on the SAT test (see May QAS 2022 Writing section question no. 35 )

*What SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

<u>semicolons</u>:  

#combine two ICs  

#*"School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC

*can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)  

**"School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC

*elimination:

**must have IC or complete sentences & thoughts on both sides of the semicolon

***i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect

**if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong

===commas ,===  

*create pauses

*commas do '''FIVE''' things:

<u>commas</u>:

#combine IC, DC, or DC, IC

#*or IC, Phr  or Phr, IC

#**ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC

#**ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC  

#***= prepositional phrase, independent clause

#combine ICs

#*''but only with a coordinating conjunction'' (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC

#**"They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC

#**"They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC

#separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects)  

#*ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O

#act parenthetically  

#*", .... ," (like these parentheses)

#**The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V

#introduce a direct quotation

#*ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!"

**commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically (see below for examples)

**commas can NOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)

**1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another (called "compound" subjects, verbs, objects)  

***"Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy"

****= a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb

===colons :===

*distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC

*colons = do '''ONE''' thing:

#extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC  

#*i.e., a colon MUST be preceded by an IC

#*i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s  

#** ''The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"''  

#***= IC: list

#*just about any grammatical form can follow a colon, including

#**an IC, phrase, exclamation, multiple ICs with semicolons or coordinating conjunctions

#**a direct quotation (if that quotation is a complete sentence and if the colon is preceded by an IC

#**exceptions arenthat colons are not followed by  

#***another colon

#***a dependent clause that modifies the independent clause prior to the colon

*colons <U>DO NOT</U>:  

**interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) or connected elements in a sentence  

***ex., "''I went to the store''': because''' I needed some supplies''"

***or "''She knew''': that''' it was the right thing to do''"

****the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates

***or "''They have two ideas: which are both innovative"''

****"which" creates a DC that modifies the IC prior to the colon, so it cannot be separated from that IC by a colon  

*****(a comma separating the IC and DC is okay)

**have multiple colons in a sentence

----------------------------------------------------------

*What COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

#extend or provide examples following an IC

*what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)

**or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)

**colons are usually followed by a list or an example

**a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:  

***''The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!"'' = IC: IC

*elimination:  

**if NOT preceded by an IC, eliminate the colon

**if another possible answer is a dash that is acting like a colon, then both cannot be correct, so eliminate

===dashes --===

*separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon

*dashes do '''TWO''' things:

#act like a colon

#act like parentheses (...) = -...-

*What DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

<u>dashes</u>:

#act like a colon  

#*ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list

#*the dash is often used for emphasis (as opposed to a colon, which adds information)

#act like parentheses (...) = -...-

#*The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive"

*elimination:

**if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)

**if not acting like parentheses, and there is NOT an IC preceding the dash, eliminate

**if another possible answer is a colon and the dash is not acting like a parentheses, then both cannot be correct

==Apostrophes quick start guide==

*'''apostrophes''' do two things:

**create contractions ("it's" from "it is" or "can't" from "can not")

** show possession  

***nouns possess nouns and nouns can only possess nouns (not verbs)

***punctuation can NOT separate the possessor noun from the possessed noun

***adjectives may separate the two nouns, as in "The cowboy's fast horse"

**possessive apostrophes singular v plural:  

*elimination:

**if punctuation or a verb follow the possessor noun, eliminate (see examples below)

*note: use of an apostrophe to create a contraction with a noun and the verb, "to be" is informal and not measured on the SAT  

**ex., "winning's good" for "winning is good" is informal

== Conjunctions quick start guide==  

*'''conjunctions''' combine words, phrases, and clauses  

**'''coordinating conjunction''' (CJ)

****''I was hungry, so I bought a burger''

*note: the word '''however''' is NOT a conjunction,  

**therefore it must be combined with another CJ or a semicolon if combining two ICs

**'''subordinating conjunction''' (SJ)

***= turns an IC into a DC by requiring additional ideas to complete the thought of the clause

***whereas, if we use the CS "since" = Since I was hungry, I bought a burger"  

****= DC, IC ("Since I was hungry is not a complete thought, therefore it is a DC, or subordinate clause)

*'''requisite or necessary clause or phrase''' (Phr)

**usually, when the SC follows the IC, there is not a comma

**the subordinating conjunction becames a relative conjunction  

***''We couldn't play '''when it rained'''''  

***some clauses and phrases are requisite or necessary to complete a thought, which means they are not separated from the main clause by punctuation

***ex. "I bought the shoes that were on sale" << "that were on sale" is necessary to the idea that "I bought" particular shoes

**see "Relative clause" below for more on essential and non-essential sentence elements

==Prepositions / Prepositional Phrases quick start guide ==  

*'''prepositions'''  

**include ''about, by, from, near, of, on'' , etc.

*prepositions create a relationship between nouns

**the nouns or other words that follow the preposition are called a "prepositional phrase" ("about something I once knew")

* prepositional phrases establish a relationship with a noun or as part of a subject-verb clause:  

**ex. adding information to a subject noun: "The ideas of the professor are novel."

**ex. adding information to a subject-verb: "The professor was educated at Yale."

*the noun in prepositional phrases are '''NEVER the subject of a sentence'''

**elimination:  

***for subject-verb matching, the preposition/ prepositional phrase is NOT the subject

****ex. "Books about sailing are fun" and not "Books about sailing is fun"

*****"about" = a preposition, so "sailing" is not the subject and the verb is therefore matched to the plural "books"

==Restrictive elements quick start guide==  

*a "restrictive" element is a sentence part that is not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or other punctuation

**'''subject - verb - object''' (or subject complement)

***are not separated from one another by punctuation

****S V O

*****''SoHo, is fun to say, and to visit << incorrect''

*****''SoHo is fun to say and to visit'' << correct

****but could be separated by a parenthetical phrase or clause:

*****''SoHo, which is fun to say, is fun to visit''

**'''adjectives and adverbs'''  

***are not separated from the noun or verb they modify by punctuation

****''That is one big, elephant!''  << incorrect

****''That is one big, elephant!''  << correct

***<u>exception</u>: could be a list of coordinate adjectives that are separated by a comma:  

****''That is one big, angry elephant!''  

***or, could be separated by a parenthetical element:

****''That is one big -- and I mean big! -- elephant''

**'''possessive nouns'''

***are not separated from the noun they possess by punctuation

****''That bird flew right by my friend's, head'' <<  incorrect

****''That bird flew right by my friend's head'' <<  correct

***<u>exception</u>: could be part of a list of adjective:  

****''That bird flew right by my friend's big, old head''

*** note: see rules below for possessives

**'''prepositional phrases'''  

****''The book, on that table is interesting''  << incorrect

****''The book on that table is very interesting'' << correct

**'''relative clauses beginning with "that"'''  

***note that some "restrictive relative clauses" may also begin with the relative pronouns, ''which, who, whose'', etc.

***but relative clauses starting with "'''that'''"  <u>are always restrictive</u> and thus are not separated from the word or sentence part they modify by punctuation

*<u>EXCEPTION</u>: parenthetical elements

**only parenthetical elements with a pair of ''parentheses, commas or dashes'' may separate restrictive elements

**the reason is that parenthetical elements are ungrammatical -- they exist OUTSIDE of the grammatical construction of a sentence

***thus they can intrude upon a sentence

***but they ALWAYS have paired punctuation, commas, dashes or parentheses, that isolate them from the rest of the sentence