US History timeline & concept chart: 10th-16th centuries pre-colonial Native Americans to early North American colonization (Spanish, French, Dutch)

US History timeline & concept chart: early North American colonization

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Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples overview

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
PERIOD / TIMELINE +12,500-8,000 BC Lithic period 8,000-1,000 BC Archaic period 1,000 BC -1492 AD: Post-archaic period 1492+ Post-Columbian	linguistic and cultural areas tribal alliances culture architecture Pueblo adobe houses Iroquois "longhouses" Mound builders land use farming hunting communal ownership	BIG IDEAS 12,500+ - 8,000 BC Lithic period post-glacial hunters and gathers mega-fauna (large mammal) hunting 8,000-1,000 BC Archaic period spread and cultural diversification across North America 1,000 BC -1492 AD: Post-archaic period 1000 BCE to 1000 AD Woodland period cultural & population growth trade & other exchange mound building includes Hopewell tradition various cultures that thrived along Ohio Valley rivers and were interconnected by trade 800-1600 AD Mississippian period and Mississippian Culture maize production extensive mound building see [List of archaeological periods (North America) (wikipedia)] Pre-contact: distribution of North American language families, including northern Mexico (wikipedia) Native America tribal alliances were language-based European entry to Americas changed those alliances DETAILS Native North American linguistic areas Northeast Algonquian Iroquoian Southeast and Gulf region Southeastern woodlands Midwest Plains Linguistic Ara Pueblo Western Northern California Northwest Coast Pacific Northwest Plateau source Linguistic areas of the Americas (wikipedia) Hopewell culture Mississippi culture Reciprocity Native American concept of sharing of land, resources, and labor was part of cultural misunderstanding between European and native populations over land and object ownership

Age of Exploration and Columbian Exchange

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
1492 Columbus lands in Caribbean 1497 British explore North American coast 1524 Verrazano expedition on behalf of France 1540 Spanish expeditions into modern U.S. territory by Coronado (Southwest) & de Soto Southeast) 1541 Cartier expedition to the St. Lawrence River 1565 Spanish establish St. Augustine, Florida 1588 England defeats Spanish Armada 1608 French explorer Champlain founds Quebec 1609 Sante Fe founded by Spanish 1523/1534 French expeditions to Canada	political and economic background collapse of Byzantium, 1453 (Christian) to Ottomans (Muslim) Italian merchants cut off from previous trade networks Christian conquest of Spain (reconquista) European motives trade, religion, political competition primary motive = direct access to South and East Asian markets British John Cabot expedition 1497 several explorations starting 1497, abandoned due to domestic British situations Cabot did not find minerals or route to China	BIG IDEAS European motives in trade and religion Columbian Exchange impacts French expansion into St. Lawrence waterway, Great Lakes region and Mississippi River Spanish missions in modern Texas DETAILS Christopher Columbus (Spanish expedition) Columbus was convinced he could reach China and India via a westward trajectory across the Atlantic Ocean Spain finally agreed to sponsor Columbus only after the Portuguese discovered a viable route to India circumnavigating Africa Portuguese had figured out the Atlantic route after developing the “volta da mar” = circular route following winds and currents to and from Portugal = led Portuguese boats further west, leading to their discoveries of the Canary Islands, the Azores, and, eventually, Brazil ex. Brazil became a Portuguese colony and today Portuguese is the national language while Columbus never admitted he had not found route to East Asia, the Spanish "discovery" of the Americas was ultimately understood by America Vespucci for whom the “Americas” is named = Florentine explorer who recognized that Columbus had not reached the islands east of India and China (the “the Indies”) and had instead discovered a new continent thus “West Indies” for Caribbean islands and the term “Indian” for the indigenous peoples of the Americas John Cabot (British expedition) after news of Columbus’ expeditions, the British organized an exploration headed by John Cabot = Venetian, Italy, navigator in 1497 became the first European to explore the North American coast it is possible that Columbus had, prior to his 1492 expedition, visited Iceland, Greenland or, possibly, Canada in 1477, as he is thought to have visited Bristol, England, which maintained trade with Iceland. Cabot sailed from Bristol, so he used the knowledge of Bristol mariners for his attempt to by-pass the Americas and find a western route to Asia Cabot’s explorations laid the basis for subsequent British and French competition for control of modern Canada, especially Newfoundland, Quebec and the Great Lakes regions. Giovanni de Verrazzano (French expedition) In 1523, the Florentine (Italy) navigator, Verrazzano, led an expedition on behalf of France to find a westward Atlantic route to India. Verrazzano explored the North American coast from the Carolines to modern-day New York. the “Verrazzano Bridge” in New York City is named in his honor. Map of North America in 1702 showing forts, towns and (in solid colors) areas occupied by European settlements Jacques Cartier (French expedition) In 1534, Jacques Cartier led the first French expedition to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River subsequent French expeditions further explored the St. Lawrence River waterways and established trade relations with Native Americans, especially the Iroquois Spanish expeditions Gulf and Western U.S. 1540 Spanish expeditions into modern U.S. territory by Coronado (Southwest) & de Soto (Southeast) Spanish colonize American Southwest but not the Southeast primary motive in settling in modern Texas is to block French expansion across Gulf region do not generally populate either region 1540-1600 French colonization slows French religious wars halt French colonization of the North America 1600 French interest in North America for fur trade 1605 Samuel de Champolain establishes French colon ig Acadia (now Nova Scotia) 1608 founds Quebec, capital of New France couriers de bois integrated with Native Americans explored upper Midwest 1663 New France declared official French colony by Louis XIV France incentives migration to New France, sending women to marry men already there, providing financial rewards for having children to contrast with British colonial push/pull factors late 1600s migration of French Huegenots (protestants) 1682 La Salle exploration of Mississippi River (called "big river" by Algonquians) establishes connection of New France to Gulf of Mexico French focus on Mississippi River trade, establishing trade posts in Louisiana

Protestant Reformation & religious conflict

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
1517 Protestant Reformation 1527 Henry VIII separates from Catholic Church 1642–1651 English Civil War 1649-1653 Oliver Cromwell & the Commonwealth of England (Protestant rule) 1649 Maryland Toleration Act (religious tolerance) 1661 "English Restoration" of Charles II	Martin Luther & Protestant Reformation Religious conflict & persecution as push factor on migration to colonial America Rhode Island & religious freedom Quakers	BIG IDEAS Protestant Reformation propels European nationalism Henry VIII’s break from Catholic Church ensures English-Spanish competition / wars Rhode Island was started by Puritan Roger Williams who was exiled from Massachusetts Williams named Rhode Island "Providence Plantation" and established religious tolerance English Civil War, 1642–1651 = religious conflict that spills over to colonies Charles I executed in 1649 the war continued until 1651 when Charles II was exiled "Royalists" v. "Parliamentarians" 1649-1653 Oliver Cromwell & the Commonwealth of England (Protestant rule) the Commonwealth marked by political dissention only Cromwell held it together, falling apart a year after his death in 1658 and his son's unsuccessful rule "Restoration" of Charles II in 1660 see also Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648 American colonial anti-Catholicism drives colonial identity and serves as catalyst for American Revolution following British take-over of French-Canadian Catholic provinces in Canada Protestant objections to centralized Church of England doctrine leads to the splinter religious movement known generally as Puritans and their offshoots, including the Brownists, (from which the Pilgrims arose), Quakers, Levelers, Anabaptists, etc. 1636 Rhode Island passed acts to prohibit religious persecution of "non-Trinitarians" "Trinitarian" refers to believers of the "Holy Trinity", which is a core Catholic belief Rhode Island is considered the first government to separate "Church and State" 1649 Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act to enforce religious tolerance for Catholics ("Trinitarians") the Rhode Island and Maryland laws explicitly protected only Christians after the English Restoration, Rhode Island welcomed Quakers, Jews and others seeking religious liberty DETAILS during English Civil War American colonialists were divided in loyalties Puritan colonies, especially Massachusetts, aligned with the Parliamentarians with the Parliamentarian victory, some Puritan colonialists returned to England Virginia (a "crown colony" as of 1634) and Maryland ("proprietary colony" but owned by the Catholic Calver family) were strongly allied with Royalists The "Plundering Time" or "Claiborne and Ingle's Rebellion" = Protestant invasion of Kent Island and St. Mary's City in Maryland, 1644-46 two years of raiding and turmoil Maryland governor, Cecilius Calvert (2nd Lord Baltimore), fled to Virginia Lord Baltimore regained power 1646 during the Commonwealth, Parliament appointed protestant commissioners who opposed Lord Baltimore the commissioners essentially ran the state from 1654-1658 under protestant rule, Maryland repealed the 1649 Maryland Toleration Act (which had provided for religious tolerance) "Battle of the Severn" in 1655 near Annapolis, MD, called "the last battle of the English Civil War" (see Battle of the Severn (wikipedia) a protestant settlement at Horn Point on the Severn River skirmished with Lord Baltimore's forces in 1658 Lord Baltimore regained control and an amnesty was declared Quakers = "Religious Society of Friends" = Puritans who were considered extremists for their belief that the "Light of Christ" resided in every person in 1681, the Quaker William Penn traded a debt owed to his father by King Charles II for the province of Pennsylvania by 1685, 8,000 Quakers had moved to Pennsylvania Penn encouraged protestant German immigrants, including Lutherans, Mennonites, Amish, and other sects many of these groups settled on farm land, thus "Pennsylvania Dutch country" Sources: History or Religion in the United States (wikipedia)

Spanish colonization in North America

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
1540 Spanish entry to “Pueblo” territories (southwest: NM, AZ) 1565 First North Amer. east coast colony (St. Augustine, FL) 1598 Spanish invasion of Pueblo lands 1680 Pueblo Revolt	Encomienda labor / land for conquistadors = abusive of Native Americans De Las Casas: Spanish priest wrote about cruelties v. Indians Sepulveda: Spanish humanist philosopher justified enslavement of Indians New Laws Spanish reforms for better treatment of Indians Pueblo Revolt Rebellion by Indians over maltreatment; led to New Laws reforms Asiento deal for slave trade between Spanish and & nations (“assent")	BIG IDEAS Spanish extraction & agriculture: need for labor Spanish goal to convert natives to Christianity Spanish abuses & reforms after native revolts & priestly criticism Development of slave trade DETAILS Encomienda, 1490s-1542 from Spanish encomendar “to entrust” land & labor grant to Spanish conquerors encomendero = holder of the land/labor grant were slave-labor mines or plantations for non-Christians Used across Spanish empire, in Morocco, Philippines, Americas Rewarded conquistadores w/ encomiendas, so incentive to conquer Designed to convert natives Abolished 1542, ended slave labor but made natives Spanish subjects Replaced by “repartimiento” system (“reparto” for “distribution” of workers) which regulated forced labor, technically no longer slavery, had some pay but not always, still forced, required native communities to contribute workers as a form of as tribute to Spanish king Bartolomé de las Casas Dominican priest/friar: In 1542: wrote about Spanish abuses in “A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies” Used accounts of Antonio de Montesinos who had denounced cruelty in 1511 sermon >> led to “Black Legend” = series of anti-Spanish/ anti-Catholic propaganda, used as political weapons to denounce Spain, full of exaggerations and lies Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, 1489-1574 Spanish humanist philosopher, proponent of Spanish conquest of Indians Was a court advisor to Spanish King Wrote “On Just Causes for War Against the Indians” (1544) Justified slavery of Indians based on Aristotelian (Aristotle) logic as inferior to Spaniards Saw natives as pre-civilization, no rights, no property, no laws Opposed Las Casas who wanted better treatment of Indians Source: https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/juan-gin%C3%A9s-de-sep%C3%BAlveda New Laws/Laws of 1542 Preceded by Laws of Burgos of 1512, which were supposed to protect Natives, but were ignored Issued by Spanish King (also Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) Reforms, following Pueblo Revolt Ended encomienda system Outlawed hereditary rule of encomiendas Revolt by encomederos leaders, killed Spanish Viceroy of Peru who enforced the New Laws Set more direct rule by Spanish king enforced prior policies and forced the issue of ending encomienda system Pueblo Revolt (1680) Pueblo was Spanish term for Indian settlements in modern NM and AZ Prior Spanish treatment of native Indians “Acoma Massacre,” retaliation for a small revolt; Spanish cut off a foot of all men over 25 Into 1600s, Spanish control, outlawed Indian religious practices, forced conversion to Christianity, required tribute via corn and textiles 1670s: drought, reduced agricultural output, attacks by Apaches, destabilization; Spanish clamped down, tried to contain discontent; persecuted Indian medicine men, including Papé, who was released after Pueblo objections 1680, Papé (also Popay) led revolt, killed 400 Spanish, pushed out Spanish Protest over resentment over Spanish policies, enforced Christianity, forced labor, cattle management, mining Papé led campaign to remove Spanish/Christian influence 1692 Spanish put down revolt (100s killed), but led to end of forced labor and religion Asiento, 1500s-1700s = “Asiento de Negros” Asiento = “contract” = agreement between Britain and Spain to set agreements for slave trade between Africa and Spanish colonies in Americas was source or revenue for Spanish crown Spain used the asiento to give or take back rights to slave trade to its colonies Spanish social heirarchy peninsulares = born in Spain, held highest positions criolles = born in New World of Spanish parents Mestizos = mixed Spanish and Native American parentage

French North American colonization

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
<<< to do	New France 1600s Beaver Wars	BIG IDEAS primary objective = fur trade lack of population migration less competition with Native Americans over land and land use Beaver Wars French and Algonquin allies against Iroquois League Iroquois armed by the Dutch and English Iroquois largely successful in controlling Ohio valley by 1670 over control of fur trade DETAILS New France regions Acadia on the Atlantic coast Canada along the Saint Lawrence River and up to the Great Lakes Louisiana from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, along the Mississippi River as of 1689 there were only 14,000 French in New France however, they were politically unified disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds had strong relationships Native American allies and developed effective military techniques with them

Dutch North American colonization

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
timeline here 17xx xxxx 17xx xxxx 17xx xxxx note spacing between lines using <br><br> code	subsection 1 Major Events here subsection 2 Major Events here	BIG IDEAS bid ideas here DETAILS details here

British North American colonization

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
1583: English claim Newfoundland 1585: first English settlement at Roanoke, VA, 1587: "Lost colony" of Roanoke (abandoned by 1590) 1603: King James I crowned 1606 First Charter of Virginia 1607 Jamestown settlement 1608 Separatist group moves to Holland 1618 Great Charter (established VA self-governance) 1620 Mayflower Company/ Plymouth settled by Pilgrims 1622 Jamestown Massacre 1624: Virginia Company abolished; royal Colony 1639: Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1642: House of Burgesses	Push / Pull factors conditions that "pushed" British emigration conditions that "pulled" colonial immigration Joint Stock Company shared ownership for commercial venture; used by England for 1st colonies Virginia Company: to establish colonies & find gold (didn’t) Headright System land grant for brining laborers to colonies Indentured servants House of Burgesses legislature, governing body of VA colony Separatists (religious) wanted autonomous congregations “separate” from Church of England Puritans: anti-papal/ anti-Catholic, wanted to “purify” English Churches Pilgrims: separatists group sailed to Plymouth from Holland Mayflower Compact: Pilgrim contract for self-rule William Bradford: became Plymouth Colony governor; wrote book “On “Plymouth Plantation” John Winthrop & "city upon a hill" Mass Bay Colony leader called it “city upon a hill” insisted on church rules “A Model of Christian Charity”: Winthrop sermon declaring Christian mission of the colony	BIG IDEAS Corporate structure & charters of British colonial enterprises British settlements & interactions/ conflicts with Native Americans Religious movements & motivations Concept of self-governance expressed/ experienced: House of Burgessses John Winthrop Fundamental Orders of Connecticut Push/Pull factors for British settlement in North America Push factors population growth religious persecution primogeniture (1st born inherits) political advantage criminality Pull factors adventurism religious freedom political opportunity economic opportunity "new start" DETAILS Joint-stock company = artificial entity to limit liability and distribute profits/losses across multiple ownership via “stocks” or portions of the enterprise originated in order to distribute risk in dangerous/ uncertain ventures such as trans-oceanic trade or colonial enterprise generally require legal authorization, esp. from monarchs in early modern Europe Virginia Company of London aka the "London Company" or the "Virginia Company," 1607-1624 1624: abolished and Virginia became “crown colony” Chartered by James I, actually a series of companies and colonial activities goal = establish English settlements on N.A. east cost also = find gold (didn’t), but did learn tobacco from Indians, John Rolfe (married Pocahontas) cultivated new strains for European market self-governed enterprise = possible source of democratic impulse among colonials Jamestown, 1607 1st settlements failed, resupplied Anglo-Powhatan wars English enmeshed in Indian tribal warfare 1610: English attacked tribes, took hostages, 1612 tribal leader Powhatan arranged peace, married daughter to Rolfe Powhatan’s successor took anti-English position, led attacks Jamestown Massacre, 1622, Indians murdered colonials peace agreements by 1627-32, but English expansion westward continued, led to war in 1644, finally Treat of 1646 turned tribes into English subjects, Virginia Colony expansion Headright System/Headrights = grant of land to colonial settlers first employed w/ VA colony, then Plymouth and others the “great charter” 1816 established headright system purpose was to populate, invest and procure labor land grants up to 1000 acres prior to departure in exchange for sending labor, usually indentured servants Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1639 Ii 1636, disaffected Massachusetts Puritans settled in Connecticut River valley 1638 Roger Ludlow petitioned Governor Winthrop for authority for those settlements to “united ourselves to walk and lie peaceably and lovingly together” 1639 Connecticut established as separate colony Fundamental Orders document declared protection of certain rights of individuals, limits on the government and the secret ballot for election of magistrates = considered first written constitution in English tradition and important step towards “self-goverance” thus the modern “Constitution State” state motto House of Burgesses, 1642-1776 local assembly/ legislature for Virginia colony, bicameral replaced the “Council of State” which operated under the Great Charter gained power over governors over time, representation expanded w/ colony tension w/ British government Separatists, 16th-17th centuries Protestants who wanted independent churches from Church of England initially illegal and persecuted but gained power under Oliver Cromwell, a separatist (1649-1660) wanted congregations to be self-determinant (i.e., anti-centralized church, = democratic spirit) 1608 separatist group fled to Holland (under James I of England who was persecuting them) 1620, off-shoot group, Pilgrims sailed to Plymouth, MA from Holland where they had lived apporx 10 yrs to escape persecution in England; wanted religious freedom but didn’t want to become Dutch Puritans wanted to “purify” Church of England from Catholic remnants strongly anti-papist (“popery”) want total separation from Catholic church most stayed with Church of England (see separatists and pilgrims) established Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1630 w/ Pilgrim separatists Mayflower Compact signed on the ship, Nov. 11, 1620 just off Cape Cod destination was Virginia Colony, but the ship landed at Cape Cod, and stayed there used that as excuse to declare self-governance maintained allegiance to England & James I text: “IN THE NAME OF GOD, AMEN. We… Do by these Presents, solemnly and mutually, in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid: And by Virtue hereof do enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions, and Officers, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general Good of the Colony; unto which we promise all due Submission and Obedience …” = declaration of self-governance/ democracy William Bradford, 1590-1657 of Plymouth Plantation Separatist, Pilgrim, 2nd & on/off governor of Plymouth Colony starting 1635 inherited farm & wealth interested in philosophy & religion, was persecuted as separatist in 1607 left for Holland to escape, started a business, married into a wealthy English family became ill during 1st winter at Plymouth (others died) as governor negotiated w/ local Indians (Massasoit of the Pokanokets), created alliance w/ Pokanokets wrote “on Plymouth plantation” = important historical record John Winthrop, 1587-1649 Pilgrim, arrived 1630, settled in area of Boston today leader of Mass Bay Colony encouraged common effort (not relying on servants for labor) helped shape legal system, opposed magistrate (officials in the “General Court” which served as the government) powers as arbitrary, called for laws to shape policies opposed pure democracy but supported rights of members of community, especially in church / congregation affairs did not support offshoot religious views, including Ann Hutchinson and other new arrivals (1630s), who were banished “antinomians” argued against following strict religious law and for salvation through grace famed for vision of colony as “city upon a hill” , saw the movement as a modern biblical exodus and example for the world “the eyes of all people are upon us” "A Model of Christian Charity" started as a diary of voyage to America and life in the colony, important primary source document later expanded on his philosophy and religious/ political outlook from it, “Model” was a sermon to define Christian community “City upon a Hill” from this speech saw puritan society as a model state saw religious rules as essential, called them “Justice and Mercy” and should apply to all, rich and poor historians see “City upon a Hill” as a statement of “American exceptionalism”

Post-Columbian Eastern Native American tribes overview

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
1450-1660 Iroquois League 1680s Wabanaki Confederacy	Iroquois League or Confederacy preceded European presence in North America originally located south of the Great Lakes empowered by and expanded via European fur trade and weapons post-Columbian exchange changes trade, especially fur trade technological and economic exchange changed intra-tribal power dynamics, including: iron tools and weapons, guns, horses colonial and European trade and currencies/ value systems tribal leverage of colonial contacts for competition & expansion	BIG IDEAS Map of the New York tribes before European arrival:  Iroquoian tribes   Algonquian tribes Northeastern Native American tribal alliances Iroquois tribes located west and south of the St. Lawrence River generally aligned with the British Algonquin tribes Pre-contact distribution of Algonquian languages generally aligned with the French located east and north of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes DETAILS Iroquois League, established c. 1450 (prior to Columbus), lasted to 1660 confederacy of Iroquois speaking tribes: Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca the most powerful of Indian alliances Iroquois = French name given to the tribes to the Iroquois, their name was "Haudenosaunee" for "People of the Longhouse" the League was known to the English as Five Nations later Six Nations after Tuscarora joined in 1722) NOTE: “nation” or “clans” = better descriptor than “tribes” but collections of tribes who share certain commonalities, viz location, language, leadership, conquest, adoption the League negotiated w/ English, maintained independence opposed to the Algonquian, which were aligned w/ French, but some Iroquois settled in French held territory and aligned w/ them was also opposed to the Iroquois-speaking Huron tribes to control the Beaver trade, the Iroquois League sought: to control the St. Lawrence River system & lower Great Lakes to control the Ohio Valley Iroquois succeeded in controlling Ohio valley by 1670 and pushed other tribes further west, such as the Lakotas and the Shawnee Iroquois expansion also included western Maryland and Virginia Wabanaki Confederacy, 1680s alliance of four main and ten other Algonquian tribes in Acadia Acadia =New France province in modern Maine organized to oppose New England encroachment on lands above settled boundary on the Kennebec River in modern Maine 'Wabanaki means " "People of the Dawn" or "Easterner"

Slavery origins in Americas

PERIOD / TIMELINE	Major Events, Concepts & Themes	Notes & connections: details of issues, concepts, themes & events
	transatlantic slave trade "triangular trade " Spanish, Dutch, and French slave trade	BIG IDEAS DETAILS West-African slave trade dates back to the ancient world and up to the Age of Discovery was dominated by Islamic trans-Sahara traders. North and West-African slavery existed in the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal) since the Roman period Portuguese traders established the first slave trade to the Atlantic Islands, especially to the Canary Islands (Atlantic) and Cape Verde (Africa) and upon which they created the most profitable sugar production in the world for a time With their discovery and colonization of Brazil, Portuguese slave trade extended to the Americas in 1526. With growth of Spanish colonization and development of extraction economies, especially of sugar and its by-products, molasses and rum, Spanish, Dutch, French and English merchants engaged in the transatlantic African slave trade. Spanish enslavement of indigenous Americans were insufficient to provide sufficient labor, due primarily to the diseases introduced by the Spanish that devastated Native American populations, especially in the Caribbean Many (and not all) African coastal kingdoms sold slaves to the Europeans, who generally did not venture inland to secure the slaves, which the African coastal powers provided for them. Intra-African slave trade was ethnic-based and a higher percentage of slaves died along inland slave routes than on transatlantic shipments (80% mortality rate by some estimates) Middle Passage refers to the transatlantic shipment of slaves Middle Passage mortality rate is estimated at 12.5% or 2.2 million people estimated 15.3 million people were sent to the Americas as slaves estimated 33% of slaves died during the first year at Caribbean destinations, called “seasoning camps,” with perhaps 5 million having died there across the slaving period. estimated 5% of African slaves brought to Americas went to North American colonies Olaudah Equiano wrote a memoir of experiences as slave (published 1789) click EXPAND for more on Olaudah Equiano and his memoirs: he was from an inland village which was connected to slave trade, both as merchants and victims he was kidnapped in West Africa and sold to European slavers, shipped to America memoir offers account of his childhood in Africa, the horrors of the Middle Passage, shipment from Barbados to Virginia where he was sold to a British Naval officer in Virginia subsequent enslavement was in the Caribbean purchased his freedom from his final slave owner, Robert King, a Philadelphia Quaker who conducted trade in the Caribbean Equiano conducted business with King who taught him literacy and business and allowed him to buy his freedom in 1766, Equiano moved to England as a freedman, since in Georgia he was almost kidnapped on the docks where he was unloading a shipment and sent back to slavery became involved in various ventures including an Arctic expedition to find the "Northeast Passage" to India (via Norway and Russia, as opposed to the Northwest Passage which marked attempts to cross from the Atlantic to the Pacific north of Canada) from the introduction of his memoir: To the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and the Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain. My Lords and Gentlemen, Permit me, with the greatest deference and respect, to lay at your feet the following genuine Narrative; the chief design of which is to excite in your august assemblies a sense of compassion for the miseries which the Slave-Trade has entailed on my unfortunate countrymen. for excerpt on the Middle Passage see Primary Source: Olaudah Equiano Describes the Middle Passage, 1789 (lumenlearning.com) for entire memoir see: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African (gutenberg.org)