View source for US History timeline & concept chart: 1860s-1900

'''US History timeline & concept chart: 1860-1900'''

{{US History timeline & concept chart introduction template}}

== 1860s: Lincoln & Johnson administrations ==

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=== Rise of Lincoln’ political career ===
- Lyceum speech
- Congress in 1840s (1 term)
- Ran for Senate in Illinois v. Stephen Douglas
- Lincoln-Douglas debates

Lincoln stories:
* tall, tall hat (kept papers in it)
* grew up poor, rail splitter, learned to read 
* humor
** “Nothing that’s not wrong with the rest of the world: I have 3 walnuts and each wants 2.”

=== Election of 1860 ===
Lincoln
Republican Party

Southern secession

Civil War

Lincoln war measures (shutting down press, draft, keeping the border states)


Border states = key to Lincoln strategy


Gettysburg Address: 
giving the War meaning:
- self-government
- freedom

Civil War economic impact

North wins in war and economics

Southern economy in ruins
Republican policies enacted

CIVIL WAR ERA
CONSTITUTIONAL AMMENDENTS


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=== Election of 1860 ===
Lincoln position on slavery: no expansion but left where it was
 >> but argued against slavery as unethical 
= argues against slavery but not its abolition
  >> Southerners and northern abolitions don’t like Lincoln
  >> southerners assume he is against slavery
 >> abolitionists assume he is no strong on the issue
- 4-way split election:
 > Democratic party split between north (Douglas) Southern candidates (Breckenridge)
 > the 4th candidate was a border-state, pro-Union, pro-slavery but anti-spread of slavery former Democrat, John Bell, who carried border states and Virginia
> Lincoln won w/ mostly northern votes which gave him Electoral College majority
   = clear winner
 > South Carolina secedes, followed by others up to March 1861 when Lincoln took office

=== Civil War: Lincoln's policies ===
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Lincoln position on slavery: no expansion but left where it was
 >> but argued against slavery as unethical 
= argues against slavery but not its abolition
  >> Southerners and northern abolitions don’t like Lincoln
  >> southerners assume he is against slavery
 >> abolitionists assume he is no strong on the issue
- 4-way split election:
 > Democratic party split between north (Douglas) Southern candidates (Breckenridge)
 > the 4th candidate was a border-state, pro-Union, pro-slavery but anti-spread of slavery former Democrat, John Bell, who carried border states and Virginia
> Lincoln won w/ mostly northern votes which gave him Electoral College majority
   = clear winner
 > South Carolina secedes, followed by others up to March 1861 when Lincoln took office
Lincoln positions during war
- does not recognize secession
- U.S. Gov will defend its properties
 > Ft. Sumter = 1st battle of the war, off coast of Charleston, SC 
- War is about UNION 
Meaning of the War
- to Southerners: 
 > felt they were defending Constitutional rights
 > considered the North the aggressors
- to Northerners
 > many but not all were anti-slavery
 > to save the Union
 >> the question for Union: can a people rule themselves? (self-government)
 >> Europeans looked upon Civil War as demonstration that democracy can’t work
Both sides started with enthusiasm for war and expectation that it would be short
Slavery 
- Lincoln’s position was originally that slavery should not be expanded
 > but during the war, he used the issue as a wartime measure 
 > he did not ban slavery in loyal border states 
  >> to keep them loyal to the Union
 > Emancipation Proclamation was huge diplomatic victory, as it made the conflict about slavery, so Europeans could not support the South 
  = Lincoln ended up using slavery as an issue to give purpose to the war
Important Battles:
- Antietam, 1862 = Union victory, gave Lincoln excuse to launch the Emancipation Proclamation (1862)
 > freed slaves in states under rebellion
 >> he previously abolished slavery in federal territories, including DC
- Gettysburg, 1863
 > along with losing control of the Mississippi River, Gettysburg ended the southern chances to win the war
 > Lincoln used battlefield for Gettysburg Address, needed a big victory for impact
- Lincoln moves the meaning of the war from just preserving the union and self-government to equality and ending slavery (liberty) in Gettysburg Address
Why north wins?
- bigger population, bigger army
- industrial base
- strategies >> Annaconda strategy << to isolate the south by controlling the coasts and Mississippi River (accomplished by Jul 1863)
Partisans:
- many Democrats in north are anti-war (Esp. immigrant areas, NYC riots)
 >>critical of Lincoln’s wartime measures to block bad press
Radical Republicans – block of senators who are strongly anti-slavery
  > criticize Lincoln for not doing enough
- south destroyed
- industrialization in north  
  < ex,. Andrew Carnegie steel industry titan, gained fortune in Civil War
- railroads expand:
  > transcontinental railroad
 > the country is more connected
 (markets, politics, economics)
- urbanization
- presidential powers enhanced
> esp via enforcement of Constitutional Amendments and Civil Rights Laws
- with the South in rebellion, the Northern states could enact legislation they had been unable to pass otherwise, including:
- Transcontinental Railroad via the northern route (Pacific Railroad Act, 1862)
- Homestead Act (1862) that gave 160 acres to “homesteaders” who agreed to stay on the land for 5 years (ie, not sell it)
 >> Morrill Land-Grant Act was part of this legislation: gave proceeds of federal land sales to states for building of state colleges
- Confiscation Acts, which allowed for taking property of anyone in rebellion and freeing their slaves
- Freedman’s bureau: to lease lands to freed slaves
13. Outlawed slavery
14.  a. Citizenship for former slaves
        b. Protect “privileges & immunities” and “due process”
        c. Equal Protection for all citizens
15. Voting rights for black men

=== Johnson administration ===
* Swing around the 
* Tenure of Office Act, 1867

=== "Seward's Folly" ===
* Secretary of State William H. Seward (under both Lincoln & Johnson)
** very powerful political actor, especially under Johnson
* negotiated the '''Alaska Purchase''' (derisively called "Seward's Folly") from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million. 

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== 1870s Grant & Hayes administrations ==

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RECONSTRUCTION

Northern occupation of South

How to bring South back into union while protecting rights of freedmen? 
	= northern army occupation of the South enforce Civil War outcomes
= to enforce the amendments and civil right laws
= to bring the south back into the union 
>> Lincoln’s 2nd inaugural address >>> goal is to end war and heal wounds
  Radical Republicans wanted to punish the South

Compromise of 1877	- 1876 election disputed, sent to House for decision
- deal cut to elect Hayes in exchange for removing federal troops from south, effectively ending Reconstruction
End of Reconstruction	- Segregation imposed by whites
 > “Jim Crow” laws restricted blacks’ rights
- Klu Klux Klan gained power and intimidated blacks
- sharecropping system grows:
 > poor farmers, black and white, had to pay rent to farm land and loaned money for seeds and tools at high rates
 >> indebted them to the landowners 
- Plessy v. Ferguson, 1883
 > court case that created “separate but equal” rule that legalized segregation (until 1950s, when overturned by Brown v. Board of Education, 1954)
 > overturned Civil Rights Act of 1875 that prohibited discrimination in public businesses and facilities
Western frontier

Indian Wars

Railroads connect to the West



Immigration drives urban growth

Political Machines in northern cities	

Growth of cites, especially New York
- rail and trolly networks lead to and through cities = growth
- immigration explodes: pay better in the U.S. than home countries
 > chain migration leads to ethnic neighborhoods
 > “tenements” = multi-family housing
 > immigrants compete with blacks for labor
- “factory towns” > poor living conditions, reliance on the factories
- Political bosses used immigrants for votes to control city governments
 > “political machines” 
 > bosses provided services to residents in exchange for political support
 > “Boss Tweed” = corrupt NYC mayor, 1870s, finally jailed in 1878
 >> Thomas Nast drew cartoons criticized Tweed & corruption

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== 1880s  .> administrations ==

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== 1870s-1890s concepts, themes & trends ==


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=== close of the western frontier ===

* railroads connected East to West coasts
* railroads, trolleys, electricity, telegraphs, etc. spread across country
* “standardized time” adopted to manage rail schedules
** "time zones" created
* by 1890, ND, SK, WA, MT were states
* Turner "Frontier Thesis:" 
** Turner, a 20th century historian, claimed that the “closing” of the frontier, i.e. filling up the country had changed America 
** because the frontier had allowed the country to grow, promoted democracy and gave opportunity to people moving west
** and “closing” of the frontier reduced those aspects
* 

=== Indian wars ===

* Little Bighorn
** Sioux tribes opposed western settlements
** US Army sent to oppose them, leading to battle of Little Bighorn
** US Army famously defeated 
*** marked the end of Indian resistance to U.S. western expansion
*** 

=== Ghost Dance movement 1890 ===

* Indian revivalist movement 
* preached liberation of Indians from US occupation
* 

=== Wounded Knee ===

* battle between Federal troops and Indians
* many from the Ghost Dance movement
* massacre of the Indians who resisted

=== Urbanization ===

* urban industrialization
* attracted immigrants and domestic migrants

* 

=== Industrialism ===

* rapid economic growth leads to creation of big companies
* industrialist personalities
** Andrew Carnegie, steel
** John Rockefeller, oil
** JP Morgan, banking 
* holding companies” buy multiple companies to control an industry
* '''mass production''' and '''assembly line''' production 
** = mechanized, automated factories with thousands of workers

=== Monopolies &  Sherman Anti-Trust law, 1890 ===

* 	monopolies = “horizontal integration” 
** = controlling an industry 
** versus “vertical integration
** = controlling all aspects of a business (raw materials, supply chains, manufacture, sale

* 	railroads are “natural monopolies” because
** 	railroads require government support to take land to build
** 	they control the tracks they built
** 	resentment over rail construction
** 	resentment over rail prices along routes, especially to move farm products

* '''Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890''' passed to outlaw monopolies
** made illegal actions “in restraint of trade” 
** targeted “combinations” (holding companies, conglomerates)

=== Gilded Age ===

* Gilded Age” = named by Mark Twain as time of huge wealth and ridiculous displays of the wealth (“gilded”) - “Gospel of wealth” = Andrew Carnegie theory that in exchange for wealth created by markets, the rich should give back to society via philanthropy
* charity and charitable donations
** Carnegie built libraries across the country
* Conspicuous Consumption 
** << to do 

=== Social Darwinism ===

* '''= Charles Darwin'''<nowiki/>'s "theory of evolution" applied to social and economic outcomes 

* the term "social Darwinism" was first used by Joseph Fisher in 1877 in reference to the development of land use and ownership in Ireland
** Fisher used the term to dispute that cattle use and ownership in Ireland was related to land ownership (tenure"
** but the term caught on with the larger meaning that "natural selection" in plants and animals also occurs in human societies
* '''Herbert Spencer''' promoted the idea of "'''''survival of the fittest''"''' 
** = that:
*** social & economic outcomes are related to race
*** races have inherent abilities that define social outcomes
*** science can predict social outcomes based on race
*** = related to the earlier theories of "phrenology" that claimed that the size of the skull marked intelligence (early 1800s)
* economic application: 
** = competition will lead to the survival of the fittest 


=== Labor movements & unions ===

* rights of workers
* strikes (and legality of them)
* '''Knights of Labor''', started 1869
** to organized urban factory workers and demand better working conditions, pay, and prohibition on child labor (under age 14)
* '''American Federation of Labor''' (AFL)
** led by Samuel Gompers
** denounced revolution and sought to negotiate with industry to raise wages and better work conditions
** AFL restricted union membership to white men, mostly, excluding blacks and many immigrants
* strikes & labor riots
** '''Haymarket Square Riot''', 1886
*** labor activists set off bomb that killed police, turned popular support against labor
** '''Homestead Strike''', 1892
*** steel factory strike put down by private army that killed several strikers
*** Pinkerton Detectives: hired by factory owners to put down strikes, protect strike-breakers (“scabs”)
** '''Pullman Palace Car Factory strike''', 1894
*** first national strike, when one strike was joined by others and rail travel was shut down - Labor movements split between:



=== Populist movements: Grange & People's Party ===
* hard v. soft money
* =  gold v. silver

* Small famers want to pay debts in silver
* Wm J. Bryan: 
** “Cross of Gold Speech”
** as the national economy become more interconnected, railroads, markets, grain prices, etc. become local issues dependent upon national systems
** as result, local interests organized into movements to defend the interests of farmers, especially, versus the railroads and industrial companies
** key was debt: farmers wanted “soft money” (silver) debt instead of “hard money” debt (gold)
** silver arose as an issue because of huge mines discovered that led to flood of silver into the markets, inflating the price of silver (thus soft money) versus gold, which was more scarce and kept its value
* '''Grange Movement''', starting 1867
* grew as “cooperatives” and political candidates to represent the interest of farmers
* Farmer’s Alliances: grew out of Grange and extended more into politics
* '''People’s Party''': grew out of the Farmer’s alliances into a full political party
** movement made up of small farmers mostly from the Midwest
** 1892 election: Omaha platform called for silver money, government takeover of railroads and telegraphs, income tax, labor reform
* '''William Jennings Bryan became Democratic party candidate in 1896, 1900 and 1908
** largely adopted the platform of the Grange/People’s party 
** Bryan: “Cross of gold” speech became famous argument for “soft money, ie silver 
** see 1890s: silver mines in CO & NV

=== Reform movements ===
* women’s rights
* urban reform
* aanti-corruption
* workplace reform
* child labor reform
* urban reformers, including:
** Jane Addams and “Hull House” to help working mothers


=== newspapers & “yellow journalism” ===

* highlighted social problems
* exaggerated or created scandals to sell more papers

=== Women’s Suffrage movement ===
* movement advances into 1890s
* American Suffrage Association won victories in various states for participation of women in state elections
** western states were first to allow women's suffrage and to hold office
* Susan B. Anthony promoted women’s suffrage amendment

=== reform movements ===
* labor 
* radical movements
* Socialism, anarchism, radicalism
anarchy, socialism, political agitation campaigns were common during this time
* as some segments of society were not able to process changes in the economy and social structure (from farm to industry, from artisan to factory worker)
* industrial strikes were sources of agitation and infiltration by radical groups into labor movements
** President McKinley was assassinated in 1901 by an anarchist
** most Americans were against violence but many Americans did worry about the meaning and impact of social and economic changes going on around them
** many Americans blame immigrants for the agitation
* socialist party arose in 1894, but was less influential than other parties
** led by '''Eugene Debs'''
** wanted to overthrow capitalism 

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== 1890s Harrison, Cleveland & McKinley administrations ==
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* Benjamin Harrison presidency
* Grover Cleveland presidency, 
* Panic of 1893
* 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff
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*1896 Spanish-American war 
*1898 Hawaii annexation 
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'''BIG IDEAS'''
<big>'''US imperialism'''</big>
* economic: 
** US investments in Latin America
** US takeover of Hawaii 
* military: 
** Alfred T. Mahan's "Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783"
** Spanish-American War
US overseas expansion & imperialism<br><br><br>
<big>'''Yellow journalism'''</big>
* USS Maine
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=== Panic of 1893 ===

* background causes
** US silver mines flooded markets with silver, which led to price inflation, especially for commodities (prices up), which encouraged additional land speculation
*** the 1890 Sherman Silver Purchase Act required that the US Government purchase silver, thus driving up the price of silver
*** farmers and miners had promoted the idea 
**** farmers want inflation to reduce cost of debts, miners wanted higher silver prices
** speculative (risky investment) bubbles in Argentina, South Africa and Australia 
** 1890 crisis in Argentina, which had received much US and European investment 
*** wheat crop failure & attempted coup d'etat
** Europeans & domestic investors turned to US gold over "paper money"
** US railroad over-expansion
* direct causes
** in 1893, just before President Cleveland took office , the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad (yes, the "Reading" on the Monopoly board!) failed, causing '''bank runs''' and "credit crunch" (banks call loans for immediate repayment and don't offer new loans)
** 

=== Tariffs ===
* before the 1920s, most Federal revenue was generated by tariffs
* the tariff was a deeply controversial and divisive issue across 19th and mid-20th century politics
* Democrats were traditionally low-tariff advocates and Republicans, from the Whig tradition, advocated "protective tariffs" 
** to "protect" domestic products against foreign competition
** '''low tariffs''' = pro-consumer, pro-importers (especially agriculture-based economies, exported crops and imported goods)
** '''high tariffs''' = pro-industry, pro-local production; also called '''protective tariffs'''

* Europeans used colonial possessions for home markets and protect themselves against competition via protective tariffs 
* US industrialization amplified the debates

* '''McKinley Tariff of 1890'''
** explicitly protective tariff, raised rates 50% on average
** McKinley, who would become President in 1897, was known as the "Napoleon of Protection" 
** the Tariff used the concept of "reciprocal" tariffs, which mean that certain items would be exempt from tariffs, such as sugar, coffee, and tea in order "to secure reciprocal trade" 
*** i.e. countries exporting those goods lower tariffs on American goods
*** but the US could raise tariffs if that "reciprocity" was unmet
**** note that "reciprocity" was negotiated but not enacted between the US and Canada in 1911
** the tariff became unpopular as it raised the cost of many goods 
** Republicans lost the House in 1890 and the presidency and the Senate n 1892 largely in opposition to the tariff 

* '''Wilson-Gorman Tariff, 1894'''
** US overseas trade led to more competition with Europeans across the world
** Democratic-controlled Congress passed the tariff with lower rates than the McKinley Tariff
*** however, the Senate forced higher and protectionist rates that the House had passed
**** especially controversial was a tariff on sugar, which was blamed on the "Sugar Trust" (sugar producers)
*** President Cleveland allowed the bill to go into law but without his signature
**** he called it the product of "party perfidy and party dishonor"
*** domestic sugar interests have up to the present influenced tariff laws for their own protection
** the tariff imposed a 2% income tax to make up for lost revenue from lower tariffs
**** in the landmark case ''Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.'' the Supreme Court ruled that the income tax was an "unapportioned direct tax"
**** = not a "direct tax" since the income tax varied by income
**** the Constitution required that a "direct tax" be equally applied to all citizens

* '''Dingley Tariff of 1897'''
** enacted during McKinley's first year in office 
*** he had run for president on a promise for a protectionist tariff
** the Dingley tariff marked both the longest lasting and highest overall tariff in US history
*** it was replaced in 1909 by the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909, which was deeply controversial

==== American imperialism ====

* background
* industrialization empowered American foreign trade and investments
* Alaska territory was the final "American frontier"
* decline of Spanish colonial empire, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained colonies after Latin America independence movements in the 1820s
** Cuban independence movements sought & received much support in US
* '''Alfred Mahan “Influence of Sea Power”''' (1890)
** Mahan argued for need for navy to enforce access to foreign ports for trade
** his circular logic: strong navy allows for imperialism which creates need for strong navy
** coaling stations in Hawaii allowed for more transit across the Pacific

* '''annexation of Hawaii, 1898'''
** 1891 Queen Liliuokalani crowned ruler of Hawaii 
** Hawaii was an important supply source for ships crossing the Pacific
*** with growth in steam power, Hawaii became even more important to American shippers for trade with east Asia
** starting in 1819 and growing into 1870s, US missionaries and settlers established sugar plantations in Hawaii
** US tariffs exempted Hawaiian sugar (which led to growth in production), but in 1890, the <nowiki>'''MicKinley Tariff'''</nowiki> subsidized American sugar producers (gave them money to lower their prices), which made Hawaiian sugar more expensive, and created an economic crisis in Hawaii
** in 1891, American planters forced abdication of newly-crowned Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani
** Cleveland refused to recognize American annexation of Hawaii
** in 1898, the US officially annexed Hawaii as part of the settlement of the Spanish-American War (1898)
===== Spanish-American war, 1898 =====

* Cuban revolutionaries appealed to Americans for help for independence from Spain
* "Remember the Maine!” 
* USS Maine blew up at Havana harbor
* Yellow journalism promoted the war, blaming Spanish for blowing up the Maine
* US attacked Spanish holdings in Cuba, Puerto Rico & Philippines
* turning each into US possessions
* "Treaty of Paris” 1898, US agreed to independence for Cuba and possession of Puerto Rico, Philippines and Guam (Pacific islands)
* "'''Platt Amendment'''" 
** an amendment to an Army appropriations (funding) bill named for Senator Platt
** required that Cuba:
*** not make any treaties that would weaken its independence or cede territory to another country
*** allow the US to purchase or lease land for naval stations (Guantanamo Bay)
*** not become indebted to other nations so as to give them an excuse to extract payments by military force (a common policy that in the US was later called "gunboat diplomacy"
*** agree that the US has the right to intervene in Cuba to maintain its independence and domestic peace (prevent a civil war)

=== "Open Door" policy, 1899 ===
* McKinley's Secretary of State John Hay's memo declaring that all countries should be allowed to trade with Chiina
* written in response to 1894 war between China and Japan over control of Korea
** China lost and was forced to allow Korean independence and cede control of Manchuria (northeast region), which included Port Arthur, an important naval base
** European powers demanded that Japan return Manchuria to China & in 1898 Russia forced China to "lease" (loan) Port Arthur to it
** other European nations then demanded a '''leasehold''' from China
*** allowing them to each maintain a '''sphere of influence''' in China (mostly for economic development)
** in 1899 Hay sent letter (memo) to each European nation asserting that every country had the right to trade with China, even via the European "leaseholds"
** thus "Open Door policy"
** Chinese groups organized against the European interventions and in 1900 rebelled by attacking embassies and killing or imprisoning foreigners
** the uprising was named for one of the groups, "the Boxers", thus the ''Boxer Rebellion''
*** US participated with European powers in sending vessels and troops to put down the rebellion 
*** Hay negotiated compensation from China instead of full military retaliation, which Europeans accepted, thus ensuring continued US access to trade with China

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== Progressive Era ==
* go to next timeline: [[US History timeline & concept chart: 1900-1940]]