SAT Writing section techniques, strategies & approaches

SAT Writing Section Techniques, Strategies & Approaches article incomplete - under construction

• Note on abbreviations
  • IC = "independent clause"
  • DC = "dependent clause"
  • SV = "subject + verb"
  • SVO = "subject + verb + object"
  • CB = College Board
    • all practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]

Writing section overview

• SAT Writing Section Test Directions
  • students are to answer questions based upon:
    • revising text for effective expression of ideas
    • correcting grammatical errors, such as sentence structure, usage, or punctuation
    • interpret graphs and apply to text corrections
  • some questions will refer to an underlined portion of a passage
  • some questions will ask you to consider a portion of a passage or the passage as a whole
  • the correct answer “most effectively improves the quality of writing”
  • correct answers conform to “conventions of standard English”
• SAT Writing Test Structure
  • students have 35 min. to answer 44 questions
  • test has four readings passages with 11 questions each
    • = average of 8:45 min per passage

BIG IDEAS

• this S4Swiki entry is designed to help identify grammar, punctuation, usage and logic rules and conventions
• in general:
  • any text that is not underlined is to be assumed as correct
    • therefore you can test grammatical rules based on it
• use the test to answer itself
• read punctuation "out loud" to yourself" so as not to miss it

Writing section is rules-based

• the answers follow set grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions
• therefore, identify the rules as you practice & apply them in your elimination strategies

Difficulty level

• difficulty level is based on the passage and not the questions
  • there can be difficult questions on easy passages, but the bulk of "hard" questions will coincide with difficult passages

Elimination & evidence-based test

• SAT Writing is "evidence-based" = the answer is in the text
• eliminate for errors
• Writing section elimination techniques are discussed below
• use passage titles!

Grammar, logic & punctuation

• build grammar literacy as you practice
• speak punctuation as you read so as not to miss
• every sentence contains a SUBJECT and a VERB (and usually an OBJECT)
  • identify the CORE of the sentence (the "main clause")
    • then identify the sentence core then you will see how the rest of the sentence is built out from there
• editing or sentence placement questions follow simple logic, either:
  • chronology
    • what has to happen first or after
  • presentation of ideas
    • what information belongs to a logical argument
    • i.e., "if this then that" or statements necessary for an argument

Identify sentence core

• every sentence starts with a subject and a verb (SV) and usually an object (thus, "SVO")
• identify the core of a sentence
  • then see how the sentence builds out from there
  • ex:
    • Jamal plays. (subject + verb)
    • Jamal plays chess. (adds object)
    • On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess. (adds prepositional phrase for when)
    • On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library. (adds prepositional phrase for where)
    • On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library, since he can't make it there on Thursdays. (adds subordinating conjunction since which creats the subordinate (or dependent) clause to express why)
• finding the core SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT helps to identify other sentences parts and to avoid confusing or mismatching subject-verb agreement and other mistakes

Parallelism

• the SAT Writing test frequently measures "parallelism"
  • or maintaining "parallel" verb tense, subject-verb agreement, and comparatives
• parallel verb tense
  • if one verb is in the past, then (usually) the other verbs in the sentence must also maintain "parallel" tense, i.e. also be in the past tense
• ex.
  • “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.
    • each verb, "went," "bought," and "returned" and in the same (past) tense

click EXPAND for an example from CB Writing practice test 10, question 9:

Children were entertained by its plot about the antics of a mischievous cat and [9] [is] captivated by its eye-catching illustrations and memorable rhythms and rhymes. 

A) is [NO CHANGE]
B) was
C) has been
D) DELETE the underlined portion

• the correct answer B) was matches or is "parallel" to the verb "were" from "Children were entertained"

• subject-verb agreement
• subjects and verbs match singular vs. plural forms
  • = a form of "parallel" structure (i.e, matching singular or plural subjects and verbs)
• the SAT Writing measures student ability to recognize the conjugations of verbs and match them to the correct subject
  • note that this
  • ex.:
    • "People who live on an island know how to swim" v.
    • "My friend who lives on an island knows how to swim"
      • "people" = plural, thus "people live" and "people know"
      • "friend" = singular, thus "friend lives" and "friend knows"

click EXPAND for conjugation of "to live" and "to know"

I	live	know
You	live	know
He/She/It	lives	knows	& singular nouns
We	live	know
They	live	know	& plural nouns

• parallel comparatives
• when making a comparison, we must compare similar, or parallel, things
  • thus the grammar of comparisons must also be parallel
  • the SAT Writing measures student ability to maintain parallel comparisons
• ex.:
  • "The students who studied hard performed better on the test than those who didn't study"
    • maintains the parallel" "students who studied hard" with "those [students] who didn't study"
• or
  • "Looking at the results, it is clear that the students who did study hard performed better on the test than did students who did not study hard."
    • maintains the parallel "students who did study hard" with "the students who did not study hard"

click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10:

She found that students who were required to volunteer rushed to complete their service hours in early high [19] school; they then did significantly less regular volunteer work in the twelfth grade [20] [than the service hours of those] not required to volunteer.

A) than the service hours of those [NO CHANGE]
B) than did students who were
C) than hours worked by students
D) compared with students

• B) "than did students who were not required" parallels to "students who were required"
  • note that question 19 correct answer "D) sets up correct reading of question no. 20

Practice

What effective SAT prep practice looks like

• see for recommendations on effective SAT prep methods here: [SAT Reading practice techniques]

Reading v. skimming

• "hard" reading is not necessary for Writing section success
• however, pure skimming is not recommended
• read for context but not necessarily for every detail

Synonymous answers

• if two answers are synonymous, or essentially the same, then:
  • eliminate because they can't both be right, so they are both wrong
• this elimination strategy is especially useful for punctuation and transition word questions

click EXPAND for examples of eliminating synonymous possible answers in CB practice tests

CB Writing practice test 9, question 14:

In 2013 Tallinn, Estonia, instituted fare-free rides for city residents (becoming the largest city in the world to do so), but car use in Tallinn has only slightly [14] [declined; as] a 2014 study by the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden found that car traffic in Tallinn was down less than 3 percent since it was enacted.

A) declined; as [NO CHANGE]
B) declined:
C) declined,
D) declined. As

• note that A) declined; as and D) declined. As do the same thing: a period and a semicolon both create a hard pause between independent clauses.
  • since both do the same thing and only one answer can be correct, then both are wrong
• the correct answer is B) because it creates an appropriate setup of the following information:
  • answer C) is incorrect because it creates a comma splice; however, it would be correct if it were written "declined, as", but that is not one of the possible answers.

CB Writing practice test 9, question 29:

The photo is then immersed in water and warmed. [29][In conclusion,] it is coated with lavender oil to give it (a protective finish).
A) In conclusion, [NO CHANGE]
B) Finally,
C) Thus,
D) Nevertheless,

• note that A) In conclusion and B) Finally are synonymous, since both can't be right, they ar eboth wrong.
• the correct answer is B) Finally as it expresses a correct chronology

Timed test

• all SAT sections are timed
  • keep time awareness per passage
  • practice for accuracy first (regardless of time), then build efficiency (accuracy + speed)

General strategies & approaches

• unlike on the Reading section, for the Writing section students are advised to review possible answers before reading the text
• speak punctuation to yourself while you read
• click EXPAND for an example

• • • when reading a sentence, such as "John Stevens, a prominent researcher, said, "Look at me!"
    • read it as, "John Stevens, ["comma"] a prominent researcher, ["comma"] said, ["comma"] "["quotation mark"] Look at me!["exclamation point"]"["close quotation mark"]
    • this help you to identify important punctuation in sentences that you may otherwise miss

Test & booklet formatting

• you will note that the Writing test will use page space in order to separate sentences or paragraphs across pages
• you will have to flip pages back/forth to make sense across paragraphs and sentences
• frequently, the SAT test will add graphs which will separate sentences and paragraphs by an additional page
  • or questions regarding the graph will be on a different page
• the Writing section lists most possible answer A's in the text itself and are marked "No Change"
  • students can be fooled by the inline placement
  • so it is advised to ignore the possible answer while reading the text and consider it equally as you would the other possible answers
• possible answers are only as underlined, so be careful to identify if punctuation is included or not in the underlined section

Using titles

• Writing section passages do not have introductions
  • therefore, passage titles are the only direct statement of author purpose or thesis
• titles will help answer questions, especially:
  • • add or delete questions ("focus" questions)
      • is the insertion or deletion consistent w/ the title?
    • final paragraph questions
      • last sentences of a passage generally summarize the main point, which is usually also expressed in the passage title

click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 2 from CB practice test 10:

• Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
• Test 10, question 2:

The writer wants to include a quotation by Hersey that supports the topic of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
A) (NO CHANGE) interesting, since “an individual’s sense of wholeness... follows, and cannot precede, a sense of accomplishment.”
B) interesting, since “learning starts with failure; the first failure is the beginning of education.”
C) interesting because “journalism allows its readers to witness history; fiction gives its readers an opportunity to live it.”
D) interesting with “drawings like those of the wonderfully imaginative geniuses among children’s illustrators.”

• elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
  • note: this assumes the student knows that the "Cat in a Hat" is an illustration book designed to teach reading (fairly common knowledge for English speakers)
• x A) a sense of wholeness and accomplishment unrelated to the title << so eliminate
• x B) failure has nothing to do with illustration books and reading<< so eliminate
• x C) nothing about journalism in the title << so eliminate
• y D) drawings and children's illustration assumed in the title << correct

click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 11 from CB practice test 10:

• Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
• Test 10, question 11 -- the final question of the passage regarding the last sentence (thus a concluding sentence):

Full sentence: "But perhaps the best proof of The Cat in the Hat’s success is not its influence on other books but its __"
Question: The writer wants a conclusion that restates the main themes of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
A) (NO CHANGE) limited vocabulary and appealing word choices.
B) impressive worldwide sales that continue to remain high to this day.
C) enduring ability to delight children and engage them in learning how to read.
D) important role in the history of illustration in the twentieth century

• elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
• x A) title is not about word choices (or limiting vocabulary) << so eliminate
• x B) title is not about the book's sales, it's about changing children's education << so eliminate
• y C) we can infer that the title is about learning to read << correct
• x D) title is about children's education not history of illustration << so eliminate

Elimination strategies

• where possible, re-write A) NO CHANGE with the actual word or phrase
• look at possible wrong answers and identify:
  • how they are similar
  • how they are different
  • pair similar possible answers
    • you will notice how possible answers tend to operate in pairs
• go for the low-hanging fruit first:
  • = eliminate the easy or obvious wrong answers first
• now read the relevant sentence/s or phrase/s from the passage
  • speak the punctuation so that you don't miss anything
• apply your grammar, usage, and logic rules

Identify & apply rules

• every question measures some skill, rule or logic
  • by identifying the rule, students may eliminate more accurately
• rules for punctuation
• click EXPAND on elimination by punctuation rules

• get the low-hanging fruit first:
  • identify a punctuation rule you know and eliminate the wrong possible answers
• ex., Practice Test 1, Writing Q3

If it is improperly introduced into the environment, acid-whey [runoff can pollute waterways,] depleting the oxygen content of streams and rivers as it decomposes.

A) NO CHANGE << can pollute waterways, 
B) can pollute waterway's,
C) could have polluted waterways,
D) has polluted waterway’s,

• the easy elimination ("the low hanging fruit")
  • A and C do not have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
  • B & D both have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
• apply the possessive noun rules:
  • nouns can only possess other nouns
    • i.e., if possessor noun cannot be followed by a verb (as in "waterways' depleting" = incorrect)
  • no punctuation comes in between a possessor noun and the possessed noun (as in "waterways', depleting" = incorrect)
  • only an adjective can separate a possessor noun from the possessed noun
    • ex. "the dog's tasty bone" ("tasty" is an adjective that describes the bone)
• therefore B & D must be wrong because the possessive noun "waterway's" is followed by a comma ("waterway's,") and a verb "depleting"

• rules for usage
• rules for logic & chronology

Parts of speech & rules

• identifying parts of speech will yield higher scores
• see this article for Parts of speech
• below sections will expand on word parts of speech and their associated rules and applications to the SAT Writing test

Adverb

• adverbs usually end with -ly and act to qualify or further describe a verb (“She ran quickly”)
• other adverbs include, very, much, more, many

Nouns

• nouns = people, places things, act as subjects or objects
  • proper nouns are capitalized

noun modifying another noun

• one type of consecutive nouns may be a noun acting as a modifier, as if an adjective (but not one)
• such nouns are called "attributive" nouns
  • also called "adjunct" (supporting of) nouns or "apposite" (related to)
• attributive nouns modify or qualify another noun
  • modify = change or add to the meaning of
  • qualify = limit the meaning of
  • attributive = provides an "attribute" or characteristic or quality to the other noun
• ex.: "dog food"
  • i.e.: "dog food" = "a type of food that is for dogs"
  • "dog" thereby indicates an attribute, or type or characteristic, of "food"
• example of multiple objects + a attributive nouns:
  • "The pitcher threw the batter a hardball pitch"
  • S: pitcher V: threw IO: catcher ADJ: hardball (appositive noun) DO: pitch
    • could also be expressed as: "the pitcher threw a (hardball) pitch to the catcher"
      • "hardball" = a noun, but here it is describing the direct object "pitch"
      • thus "hardball" is acting like an adjective
• the attributive noun is (almost) always singular
  • = because it is acting like an adjective, which always remains in the singular form ("red shoes" as opposed to "reds shoes")
  • = as a category or type, the noun must remain singular
  • exception for plural attributive nouns = special words such as "arms race" or "rewards card"
  • possessive attributive noun:
    • ex.: "the National's game"
    • these are often morphed into plural attributive, thus "National's game" becomes "Nationals game", "reward's card" becomes "rewards card", or "lady's night" becomes "ladies night"
  • multiple attributives
    • ex.: "beef dog food" or "
    • news headlines often use multiple attributives, such as "South Park man Kenneth "Kenny" McCormick dies again"
• strict grammatical terms does now apply the "attributive" label for "adjective homograph" nouns (such as "iron" or "paper") or "compounds" or "open compounds"
  • see https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/explanatory-notes/dict-attributive-nouns
• attributive nouns are not adjectives
  • the only syntactic form of an adjective that the attributive noun employs is the "prepositive" position
    • i.e., preceding the noun it modifies
      • big dog, small house
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as post-positive adjectives (following the noun):
    • whereas an adjective can be a subject complement:
      • boring meeting >> the meeting is boring
    • dog food >> food dog or business meeting >> meeting business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as subject complements (as do adjectives)
    • the food is dog or the meeting is business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot take on a comparative form (as do adjectives)
    • whereas nouns can go from big to bigger
      • big test >> bigger test
    • attributive nouns cannot: businesser meeting << doesn't work
• see also additional entry on
  • "appositive phrase"
  • compound noun
  • noun adjunct
• see:
  • Noun adjunct (wiki)
  • Nouns as Modifiers (meg.com)
• SAT Writing test questions on attributive nouns:
  • they may also appear in the passages
  • and they can help the student to isolate word parts and understand what is going on in a sentence, especially to eliminate possessive noun forms

click EXPAND for an example of how identifying attributive noun can help answer [CB Writing practice test 10, question 14]:

By requiring students to do community service in order to graduate, school [14] [officials’ are taking away students’] choice to give up their time for nonprofit activities, making volunteerism less meaningful and pleasurable.

A) officials’ are taking away students’ [NO CHANGE]
B) officials are taking away students
C) officials are taking away student’s
D) officials are taking away students'

• elimination
  • x A) the noun "official's" incorrectly possesses the verb "are" (see possessive nouns for more)
  • x B) "students choice" = an incorrect plural form of the attributive noun "student" (student choice = the kind of choice for students)
• we now have the distinction between C) student's (singular possessive) D) students' (plural possessive)
  • thus we match the correct D) students' to "By requiring students" from the sentence

appositive: nouns as parenthetical or introductory phrases

• = nouns that explain another noun (or pronouns)
• = nouns that add or qualify another noun
  • the appositive noun can be with a modifier
• appositives used parenthetically:
  • "Steve, my little brother, hates Minecraft."
    • "my little brother" = appositive, as it identifies, in a parenthetical form, who Steve is
  • note the commas:
    • commas set aside appositives / appositive phrases when the information is parenthetical, i.e.
  • the appositive is not necessary for the sentence to make sense
  • so it acts as additional information only
  • SAT Writing will typically use appositives regarding the profession or title of a person
    • and will exclude one of or delete the necessary commas in wrong answers:

Click EXPAND to see example from CB practice test 1, question 15:

But Jason [15] [Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State] believes that another factor added to the early thaw; the “dark snow” problem.

A) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State [NO CHANGE] 
B) Box an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
C) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
D) Box, an associate professor of geology, at Ohio State

• the correct answer C) places the commas around the appositive phrase, "Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State," thus correctly adding that non-essential, parenthetical information, separated by commas
  • note that "Jason Box" is the subject of the verb "believes"

• appositives without commas
  • = "essential appositive"
  • commas are not used when the appositive is necessary for the sentence to make sense
  • ex.: "My little brother Steve hates Minecraft"
    • the subject is "Steve"
    • "my little brother" is the appositive, i.e., it describes who Steve is, only directly, not parenthetically
• appositives as introductory phrases:
  • "A little brat, my brother Steve hates Minecraft"
  • "An expert gamer, my other brother John loves Minecraft"
  • these phrases are not essential for the sentence to make sense
• See:
  • The Appositive: Recognize an appositive when you find one (chompchomp.com)

Verb

• verbs are the center of a sentence
• verbs also act as descriptors to add information to a sentence
  • ex.: "On my way to to the store, I saw my friend" v. "Going to the store, I saw my friend"
    • both express the same idea using different grammatical forms
• multiple verbs:
  • one or more verbs an act upon one subject
  • if so, they must maintain “parallel” tense (past, present or future)
  • ex.:
    • “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.”
• for SAT Writing,
• maintain subject-verb agreement (i.e. singular subject = singular verb form)
  • identify the correct noun as subject, as test will try to confuse subject nouns from relative nouns
  • transitive v. intransitive verbs:
  • transitive verbs require an object:
    • ex. “She offers” must be followed by an object (“she offers help”
  • transitive verbs often include an indirect object:
    • ex. “She offers help” may include an indirect object (“she offers them help
  • intransitive verbs require a preposition or adverb:
    • ex. w/ preposition: “She arrived” requires a preposition: “She arrived at the house” (note how “She arrived house” is incorrect, thus requiring a preposition)
    • ex. w/ adverb: “She arrived at the house late” (late = adverb bc it modifies the verb “arrive” – how did she arrive? she arrived late.)

Punctuation

• the purpose of punctuation is to mimic on paper verbal, or spoken, language
  • ex., periods and commas mark spoken pauses between sentences and sentence parts
    • however, for written language, punctuation provides additional guidance to a reader that does not exist in spoken language
    • ex., semicolons are not differentiated from other forms of pause in spoken language

Period

• periods mark a full stop between complete sentences
  • see Independent clause (IC) below for what constitutes a complete sentence
• eliminate periods in possible answers when there is not an IC on both sides of the period.
• the SAT will not ask to distinguish between use of other punctuation that separates independent clauses
  • such as semicolons and commas (+ conjunction)
    • periods separate complete sentences from each other as distinct thoughts
      • i.e., IC << . >> IC
    • semicolons juxtapose sentences for comparison
      • i.e., IC >> ; << IC
    • commas + conjunction combine sentences and ideas into a single thought, with each IC weighed equally
      • i.e., IC <=> , + <=> IC

Semicolon

• semicolons juxtapose complete sentences (ICs) for comparison or emphasis or their relationship
• eliminate semicolons if there are not ICs on both sides of the semicolon

comma

• commas create a pause
• commas have multiple uses, including:
  • separate lists (of subjects, verbs or objects)
  • combine IC + DC or DC + IC
  • with a conjunction, to combine IC's
  • act parenthetically (two commas)
• eliminate according to the rules

Apostrophe

• apostrophes indicate either
  • possession ("the dog's toy")
  • or a contraction ("it's" = "it is")

Apostrophe for possession

• only nouns can possess nouns
  • see SAT Writing section for more rules on possessive nouns

• 's

  = the suffix for a singular noun to indicate possession
  • ex. "the dog's toy" = one dog possesses (has) a toy

• s'

  = the suffix for a plural noun
• exceptions occur when a noun ends with an "s", as that creates confusion between the singular "'s" and plural "s'" possessive indicator
  • normally, nouns that end with an "s" are pluralized by added "es" to the end, such as
    • walrus (singular)
    • walruses (plural
  • possessive forms are:
    • "the walrus' tusk" (singular)
    • "the walruses tusk (plural)
• note
  • if there are two possessor nouns both possessing the same thing, only the 2nd will use the apostrophe
    • i.e., "Ted and Javon's team won the game"
  • if there are two possessor nouns possessing different things (such as "their own"), both possessor nouns will use the apostrophe
    • i.e., "Ted and Javon's teams both won the game"

Possessive pronoun

• my, your, his, her, its, our, your (plural), their
• note that many other languages have the possessive pronoun
  • however, they lack the apostrophe indicator for nouns, thus instead of using the apostrophe to indicate possession ("the dog's toy") they structure the idea as "of" or "belonging to", as in, "the toy of the dog" or the toy that belongs to the dog"

apostrophes for contraction

• contractions are used for "to be" words to join the subject and the verb via the apostrophe, as in:
  • "I am" contracted to "I'm" or "we are" = "we're"
  • "it is" = "it's" or "they are" = "they're"
• informal use of the contraction occurs with any noun, as in:
  • "the dog is happy" contracted to "the dog's happy"
    • such use is informal and is mimicking the slurring of a noun with "is"
    • note that since the 's causes confusion with the possessive form of the apostrophe, in written English, the subject-verb contraction is avoided

Clause

• note:
  • a clause = a part of a sentence that has a subject and a verb (may or may not be a complete sentence or thought)
  • a phrase = a part of a sentence that has only a verb or a noun, but not both
    • note: Santa is not a clause
• Sources:
  • Types of Clauses (cliffnotes.com)

Independent clause

• "Independent Clause" (IC)
• = a sentence part that can stand as a complete sentence and thought
  • it is a clause because it is attached to or has another clause/s attached to it (otherwise it'd just be a sentence)
• IC contains SUBJECT VERB at a minimum (SV)
• IC usually contains SUBJECT VERB OBJECT (SVO)
• since SUBJECT VERB OBJECT form the core of a sentence there is no punctuation separating them, with the following exceptions:

1. parenthetical information (commas, dashes and parentheses) can separate SVO from each other

• • i.e., S (parenthetical info) V (parenthetical info) O
• click EXPAND for examples of parenthetical separation of S from V and O:

• parentheses: S (parenthetical info) V (parenthetical info) O
• commas: S, parenthetical info, V, parenthetical info, O
• dashes: S -- parenthetical info -- V -- parenthetical info -- O
• ex. "Alex, an experienced pilot, landed the plane expertly."
  • • S= Alex V= landed O= plane
  • other parenthetical punctuation:
  • "Alex (an experienced pilot) landed the plane expertly."
    • "Alex -- an experienced pilot -- landed the plane expertly."
  • two commas, two dashes or two parentheses = parenthetical phrase
    • ex. Alex, and experienced pilot, landed, for the second time that day, the plane expertly.
      • • this is an awkward sentence but using it here to demonstrate how commas can separate a SUBJECT VERB OBJECT if used parenthetically
    • compare this construction:
      • "Alex, an experienced pilot, landed the plane expertly." to:
      • "The experienced pilot, Alex, landed the plane expertly"
      • "The experienced pilot Alex landed the plane expertly"
    • each form creates a different emphasis
      • in this case, the parenthetical construction emphasizes that it was Alex who landed the plane and that
    • if, for example, Alex was an inexperienced pilot, we might prefer a construction that emphasizes it, so,
      • instead of, "Alex, an inexperienced pilot, landed the plane expertly."
      • we might say, "The inexperienced pilot, Alex, landed the plane expertly" or "The inexperienced pilot Alex landed the plane expertly"

• click EXPAND for example of SVO lists:

• S, S V O
• S, S and S V and V O
• S, S and S V, and V O
• S, S and S V, V and V O and O
• S, S and S V, V and V O, O and O
  • note that with commas that separate a subject, verb, and/or object the final word in the list must not be separated from the related S V or O
• ex.
  • "Alex, Nia, and Joan are all experienced pilots"
  • "Alex, Nia, and Joan relied on, used, and proved their skills by landing their planes expertly"

Dependent clause

• "Dependent Clause" (DC) is a sentence part that contains a subject and a verb but does not complete a thought
• also called "subordinate clause"
  • DC clauses are therefore attached to an IC that completes the clause as a complete sentence and/or thought
  • DC clauses add information to but are not necessary for the IC to make sense
• Note: technically, a sentence part that does not contain both a noun and a verb is a phrase
  • yet non-IC sentence parts are commonly referred to as "dependent clauses" when they are actually "phrases" if they do not contain a subject + verb

Click EXPAND for examples of DC:

• "Since I ate breakfast late, I'll skip lunch"
  • "Since I ate" = an incomplete thought and so not an IC
• example of a phrase that is not a clause as it does not contain a verb:
  • "Going to the store, I realized I left my wallet at home."
    • going = an -ing verb acting as a modifier or adjective and known as a "participal"
    • therefore, "going to the store" = a "participial phrase" and is not a DC
    • see
      • Participial Phrases (yourdictionary.com)
      • gerund-phrase (gingersoftware.com)

• see:
  • Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses (owl.purdue.edu)
  • The Difference Between Dependent and Independent Clauses (merriam-webster.com)

Dominant or main clause

• dominant or main clause are other names for an IC
• used as reference not for grammar but for the idea of a sentence:
  • = that part of the sentence that makes the complete and most important, or "dominant" thought of the phrase
    • i.e., the main clause or part of the sentence that states its primary purpose or idea
  • everything else is additional information
• for the SAT test, the "dominant /main clause" is that core idea of a sentence that is the focus of the sentence
  • SAT tests measure #Emphasis shift
  • emphasis shift measures if the correct form of the sentence "emphasizes" the core or main idea of the sentence
  • passive voice de-emphasizes the dominant clause
    • i.e. OBJECT VERB SUBJECT
  • dominant /main clauses employ direct voice, i.e. SVO

Noun clause

• = a clause that functions as a thing or idea (nouns)
  • ex.: "What I love to eat the most is steak"
    • ""What I love to eat the most" = a clause that operates as the subject to the verb "is"

Adverbial clause

• = subordinate clause created by a subordinating conjunction and adding information to the action of a sentence
• adverbial clauses define or add information as to how, how much, when, where, why

Subordinate clause

• subordinate clause is another name for a DC
  • subordinate clauses are usually those clauses that are formed by adding a subordinating conjunction
  • more generally, subordinate clauses mark additional and not required or requisite information that is expressed in the dominant clause
• Subordinating conjunction:
  • Subordinating conjunction "subordinates" an IC into a DC
    • i.e, (SC) renders or turns an IC into a DC
    • the reason is the the SC creates the need for additional information after the SVO
    • ex. "I love baseball" = a complete sentence and thought
    • by adding a SC to the sentence, it is no longer a complete thought:
    • ex. "Since I love baseball"
      • "Since" = SC and it "subordinates the IC "I love baseball" by creating the need for additional information in order to complete the thought:
      • "Since I love baseball, I watch it every chance I get."
• Click here for list of and more on Grammar#subordinating_conjunctions (see Grammar entry)

relative pronouns

Pronoun	For	Rule
who	people	subject (does the action): he, she, we, they
whom	people	object (acted upon): him, her, us, them
whose	people or things	possessive form of whom: his, her, us, their
that	people or things	subject or object: adds required information (no punctuation)
which	things	subject or object: adds additional information (usually non-restrictive, ie. with a comma)
* Source: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/relative-clauses/

Relative clause

• or "adjective clause"
• = a dependent clause that contains a subject-verb, but provides additional information and is not a complete sentence of thought by itself
• the "subject" of the clause is a pronoun (thus "relative," as pronouns relate to a noun)
• relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun (see table)
• relative clauses can be either restrictive or non-restrictive, per below
  • ex.
    • "Sue, who is always late, showed up on time."
    • "The PG-13 movie scared me, which was surprising."
• Sources:
  • Relative Clauses (unc.edu)
  • Grammar: Relative, Restrictive, and Nonrestrictive Clauses (walenu.edu)
  • Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses—What’s the Difference?(grammarly.com)
  • Comma before which (thewordcounter.com)
  • Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses Examples (softschools.com)

Restrictive relative clause

• goes by various names: necessary, requisite or defining clause
  • technically, also an "adjective clause" since it describes a previously stated (antecedent) noun
• "necessary" or "requisite" = the idea is the clause or phrase is necessary
• "defining" = the meaning of the sentence is defined by the clause
  • or: the sentence is not a complete thought without the clause
• restrictive clauses are not separated by punctuation
  • i.e.: since the information is necessary, there is no pause
  • ex.: "Glue that sticks to both my fingers and the paper is a pain"
    • vs. "Glue, that sticks to both my fingers and the paper, is a pain"
      • since the parenthetical phrase is "non-defining" (can be removed), that would leave us with only "Glue is a pain" which lacks the defining information as to what type of glue is a pain, the kind "that sticks to both my fingers and the paper"
• note: because does not introduce a restrictive (or non-restrictive) clause because it is a subordinating conjunction and not a relative pronoun

Mon-restrictive relative clause

• or "Non-defining relative clause"
• or "non-essential" clause
  • = the additional information added by the clause is not necessary (or essential) for a complete sentence or thought
• ex.: "Glue, which I hate to use, always sticks to my hands."
  • "which I hate to use" is not essential to the idea that "Glue always sticks to my hands"
• see Restrictive relative clauses for sources

Sources for clauses

• > to add general guides for clauses

Phrase

• = a sentence part that contains either a noun or a verb but not both
• phrases are used to add information to a sentence or modify one of its parts
  • "In the afternoon..." = a prepositional phrase
• types of phrases:

gerund phrases

• gerunds
• -ing forms of verbs that act as a noun
• gerund phase is a gerund + other word/s that describes the state of something
  • ex.: "Running with the ball, he scored!"
• for more on gerunds see [[1]]
• SAT Writing test generally does not test for gerunds, although they will appear in the text

participial phrase

• = verb phrases that act as an adjective
• participle = a verb that functions as an adjective, usually in the past tense or -ing form
  • "participle" = a verb or verb phrase, but used here to describe a phrase that starts with a "participle" (verb) but that sets up a phrase to act as a noun or adjective
• as an adjective:
  • ex.: "Songs sung softly are soothing"
    • "sung" = a verb but used here with "softly" to describe "songs"
    • thus "sung softly" = an adjective
      • but one that uses a verb (sung), thus making it a "participial phrase"
• note: participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers", which are adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they are modifying
  • ex.: "Singing softly she won the choral competition"
    • = unclear if she won the competition becuase she was "singing softly," or she was "singing softly" when she won the tournament
• see [dangling modifiers (owl.purdue.edu)]

prepositional phrase

• built around a preposition, which indicates time, place, or other relationship to the main clause or a noun

verb phrase

• = an additional verb that helps to modify or clarify another verb
• think of "verb phrases" as a combination of verbs that act as a single verb
  • verb phrases are combinations of verbs to make a single verb phrase or predicate (a verb or words that together act as a verb)
• sometimes also called "helping verb" = verbs that "help" other verbs
  • ex.: "She could have broken the vase."
    • "could have" = "helping verbs" that define the verb "broken"
    • "helping verbs' include:

Helping verb !! example

be, am, is are, was	am eating
were, been, being have, has, had	have eaten
must, shall, can, will,. do, did, does, having	can sing

• • note that these "helping verbs" are different from conjugations such as "had sung" or "will sing"

Sentence placement

• paragraph and sentence order will follow either
  • logical argument, or
  • chronological sequence
• identify transition words that would require certain information to precede or follow the sentence
• identify prepositions / phrases for time or place sequence (“now” “after” etc.)
• identify determiners, and place the sentence according to
  • a = the first time an idea or word/name has been mentioned
  • the = previously stated
    • ex.: “this guy” means that whoever “this guy” is was already stated, whereas “a guy” would be introducing the “guy” for the first time, which should inform sentence placement
• identify pronouns in order to place correct sentence sequence:
  • ex: “Scientists understood that this process illuminates…” – “this process” suggests that correct sentence placement will follow an initial discussion of the process

to fix: Writing section sentence placement Clues: 1. pronouns 2. other transition words 3. details 4. don't break up logical sentences 5. chronology

Transition words

• Suggested approach:

1. ignore the transition word in the passage and re-write it next to A) NO CHANGE

2. translate the transition words into your own words

• see Transition words translations
  • ex., "nevertheless" = "yeah, but" or "anyway"

3. identify if any two transition words are synonymous

• • if both mean the same thing (are synonymous), they can't both be right, so eliminate
  • ex., "However" and "Yet" = synonymous, so eliminate

4. identify if the transition word is generally positive or negative, i.e,

• click EXPAND to see table

POSITIVE	NEGATIVE
expands	contrasts
explains	contradicts
restates	states an opposite
adds information	offers alternative
gives example	Says "yes... but"
compares
draws a conclusion from
follows chronologically or creates a sequence

• • see also Transition words translations

5. NOW read the sentences

• • don't summarize, simplify (to avoid misconstruing the meanings)
  • ex. College Board practice test 6, Writing question 8
• click EXPAND to see transition sentences example from Test 6

"The research demonstrated a clear correlation between introducing phosphates and the growth of blue-green algae. [9] For example, legislators in Canada passed laws banning phosphates in laundry detergents, which had been entering the water supply"

• • re-read as:
    • Sentence 1: "The research demonstrated correlation between phosphates and blue-green algae."
    • Sentence 2: "[____ ] legislators passed laws banning phosphates"

6. NOW assess the relationship between the two sentences WITHOUT LOOKING AT THE POSSIBLE ANSWERS

• • Does sentence 2 support/expand, etc. (POSITIVE) or contrast/contradict, etc. (NEGATIVE) sentence 2?

7. NOW anticipate the correct answer IN YOUR OWN WORDS

• click on EXPAND to see the anticipation

• • • Sentence 2: "[____ ] legislators passed laws banning phosphates"
  • does what to:
    • Sentence 1: "The research demonstrated correlation between phosphates and blue-green algae."

POSITIVE	NEGATIVE
expands NO	contrasts NO
explains NO	contradictsNO
restates NO	states an oppositeNO
adds information MAYBE	offers alternative DOES NOT CONTRADICT
gives example NO	Says "yes... but" NO
compares NO
draws a conclusion from NO
follows chronologically or creates a sequence MAYBE

8. NOW eliminate

• A) For example, << NO bc Sentence 2 does not give an example of Sentence 1
• B) Similarly, << NO bc Sentence 2 does not make a comparison to Sentence 1
• C) However, << NO bc Sentence 2 does not draw an opposite
• D) Subsequently, << YES bc Sentence logically follows chronologically Sentence 1
  • So the answer is D)

Usage

• overall, the SAT measures for concise and precise usage
  • select for direct voice
  • avoid wordiness or overly complex sentence construction
  • avoid repetition
    • ex.: “annually, the store has a sale every year”
  • avoid unnecessary breaks in clauses (using "gap commas" see [[2]]

Emphasis shift

• SAT measures focused writing
• "emphasis shift" = losing focus, straying from the idea, or emphasizing the wrong clause
  • sentence emphasis should be upon the dominant clause
    • i.e.: don't unnecessarily complicate the most important idea in a sentence
• proper sentence construction emphasizes the dominant clause
  • while the subordinate clause adds information or details but does not detract from the message of the dominate clause
• emphasis shift when Combining sentences:
  • identify the main purpose of the sentence and select that possible answer which most directly states that purpose or includes it in the dominant clause:
    • ex.: “I found a unique vase from the store, which was very cluttered, in the back”
    • vs. the more direct: “I found a unique vase in the back of the cluttered store"

Combining sentences

• use relative pronouns (that, which, who, whose, etc.)
• add commas prior to conjunctions ( “, and …”)
• consider combining subjects and verbs
• avoid repetition and unnecessary pronouns
• avoid #Emphasis shift errors

"Command of Evidence” questions: adding or deleting text

• asks to improve a passage by adding or deleting text or a sentence
• correct answer will improve and clarify passage or paragraph focus and purpose
• the point of these questions is to identify textual focus
• incorrect answers will dilute or distract from passage or paragraph focus and purpose
• use titles for context and consistency with main point
• be careful to read "delete" or "add"
  • SAT purposefully mixes up the wording to be confusing
• try to eliminate first by stated reason for adding or deleting
  • then decide between "yes" or "no"

Modifiers usage

• modifiers = words or phrases that change the meaning of other words or phrases
  • see Grammar#Modifiers.2C_qualifiers_.26_intensifiers
• includes adjectives and adverbs (“very”, “-ly” words)
• modifiers do not impact the core sentences structure (i.e. can be removed)
• correct modifiers are placed next to the word or phrases being modified
• “dangling modifier” = ambiguous or missing connection between modifier and its target
  • ex.: “Being late, my teacher gave me an F” (confuses “being late” w/ “teacher”)
• “misplaced modifier” = incorrectly placed modifiers
  • ex. “Steve badly ripped his shirt” (instead of “Steve ripped his shirt badly”)

Homophones

• homophones = sound alike, different spelling & meaning
  • their v. they’re, it’s v. its
  • affect v effect
    • affect = a verb meaning "to impact, influence, alter or make a difference"
    • effect = a noun meaning "the result" of something
• note: effect can also be a verb meaning, "to produce a result" BUT
  • for the SAT use affect as a verb, and effect' as a noun
• homonyms = same spelling, different meaning
  • ex." dogs bark, trees have bark
  • not generally included on the SAT

Idiomatic words

• "idiomatic" = words, phrases or expresses that have no set rule and exist from common usage
  • idiomatic is different from "informal" or colloquial (local, common) language
• By definition idiomatic words have no set rule
• HOWEVER, on the SAT Writing section, students can use elimination techniques to eliminate down to the correct idiomatic expression
• see this video for demonstration of [on elimination techniques with idiomatic & vocabulary questions (by Michael Bromley)]

Synonyms

• use for elimination
• if two possible answers do or mean the same thing (i.e., are synonymous)...
  • since they can't both be right, they are both wrong