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'''Grammar''' | '''Grammar''' | ||
* = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words) | |||
* technically, grammar is | |||
** '''phonology''' = sounds that create word parts and words) | |||
** '''morphology''' = how words are formed and interact with each other | |||
** '''syntax''' = rules for the arrangement of words to create meaning | |||
*** syntax defines the semantical purpose (meaning) of language | |||
'''Article purpose''' | |||
* this article focuses on sentences and sentence parts, including: | |||
** sentence definition | |||
** clauses & phrases | |||
** types of nouns, verbs, adjectives and modifiers & their use in a sentence | |||
'''Note''': "punctuation" and "parts of speech" are sub-categories of "grammar" | |||
* see also: | |||
** [[Punctuation]] | |||
** [[Parts of Speech]] for grammar and usage rules on word categories | |||
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]] for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech categories, and the rules governing their use | |||
* [[SAT Writing]] has grammar and punctuation rules and advice | |||
'''Other related categories:''' | |||
* [[:category:linguistics]] | |||
** [[etymology|etymology (word origin)]] | |||
** [[semantics|semantics (individual word meaning)]] | |||
** [[syntax|syntax (word choice, combinations and context)]] | |||
* [[homographs]] including: | |||
** homophones, homonyms & heteronyms | |||
[[category:Grammar]] | [[category:Grammar]] | ||
[[category:Language Arts]] | [[category:Language Arts]] | ||
[[category:SAT Verbal]] | [[category:SAT Verbal]] | ||
[[category:linguistics]] | |||
'''Note on abbreviations''' | |||
* IC = "independent clause" | |||
* DC = "dependent clause" | |||
* SV = "subject + verb" | |||
* SVO = "subject + verb + object" | |||
* CB = College Board | |||
** SAT practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/practice/full-length-practice-tests College Board Official Practice Test Suite]] | |||
== Sentence == | |||
* a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate | |||
** i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought. | |||
** "Go!" = the subject, usually, "you" is implied | |||
*** this form of a command is called an "imperative" or "exclamatory" sentence. | |||
* sentence complexity is created around the core '''Subject Verb Object/Predicate''' by adding: | |||
** clauses | |||
** modifiers | |||
** phrases | |||
** prepositions, etc. | |||
=== Constituents === | |||
[[File:Sentence-constituent-parts school4schools-wiki-grammar.jpg|500px||border|right]] | |||
* constituent = a word or words that creates a unique grammatical unit in a sentence | |||
** word origin: | |||
*** ''con-'' = with | |||
*** ''stitu'' = from PIE ''-sta'' and Latin ''statuare'' for "to stand" | |||
*** ''-ent'' = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun) | |||
* constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence | |||
** constituent parts operates as an hierarchy | |||
*** i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun | |||
=== Categories of sentence purposes === | |||
* declarative sentence | |||
** makes a statement | |||
** most sentences are declarative in that they state something | |||
* exclamatory sentence | |||
** = a statement of urgency or emotion | |||
*** also called an "exclamation" | |||
** ex. "That really hurt!" | |||
* interrogative sentence | |||
** = a question or a request | |||
** ex. "Is it raining?" | |||
** may include rhetorical questions, such as, "Why does it have to rain now?" which may also be considered declarative | |||
* imperative sentence | |||
** = a or command | |||
*** ex., "Get to work!" | |||
** may also be an exclamatory statement | |||
*** ex. "No!" | |||
== case == | |||
* case = circumstance or situation | |||
* dictionary definition of "case" | |||
** ''Inflected forms of a noun, adjective or pronoun that express the semantic relation of the word to others in the sentence'' | |||
* in grammar, then, case is the "circumstance" of a word, how it is "situated" in a sentence | |||
** case indicates the form and relationship of certain words | |||
** case regards nouns, adjectives and verbs | |||
** "inflected" means changed or emphasized | |||
** word "inflections" are changes in a word according to chase | |||
*** ''who v. whom'', or ''I go'' v. ''he goes'' | |||
*** the change at the end of the word, its ''stem,'' is an inflection | |||
=== subjective v. objective case === | |||
* subjective = a point of view, an opinion | |||
* objective = without opinion, a universal point of view | |||
=== common errors of subjective v. objective case === | |||
* "between you and I"= incorrect | |||
** "between" is a preposition, which uses the objective case of the noun | |||
** thus it should be, "between you and me" | |||
* "she told you and I to be quiet" = incorrect | |||
** "she" = subject, "you" = the object ("she told you" or "she told me") | |||
* "who do you love = incorrect and kinda correct | |||
** "who" is an object, so should be "whom" | |||
** however, common use of this expression has made "who do you love" an idiomatic expression | |||
== Subject == | |||
* one of two parts of a sentence or a clause | |||
** subject + predicate (verb) | |||
* the subject is the "doer" of the | |||
** see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts | |||
* here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence | |||
=== subject complement === | |||
* adds information to a subject following a linking verb (''is, seems, sounds,'' etc.) | |||
** the word that follows the linking verb "complements" or "completes" the subect | |||
*** "It was late" | |||
*** "Gillian is a doctor" | |||
=== subject phrase === | |||
* the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word | |||
** a phrase = 2 or more words that do not contain a finite verb (verb that has a subject) | |||
* a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence | |||
** ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?" | |||
*** so a more complete "subject phrase" might be, | |||
**** "''The '''weather conditions''''' are poor" | |||
**** "''The '''conditions of those teams''''' are poor" | |||
**** "'''''Being smart''''' helps on that test" | |||
=== subject clause === | |||
* just as a subject may be a compound phrase ("'''Getting there''' is the best part of the trip"), a noun clause (contains a finite verb) may act as a subject (or object). | |||
* noun clauses tend to use "that" as a subordinating conjunction that creates the noun clause | |||
* ex. | |||
** '''''The team that played smarter, not harder''', won.''SUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause --------------> | | |||
** ''A question I thought about beforehand escaped me when it was time to ask it''SUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause ---------> | | |||
== Object == | |||
* the recipient of the actions | |||
** see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts | |||
* objects follow "transitive" verbs, which indicate an action that necessarily "acts" upon something | |||
** ex. "I ''hit the ball''" | |||
*** hit = transitive verb (requires an object) | |||
*** ball = the recipient of the action | |||
=== object complement === | |||
* a word that modifies a direct object | |||
** that is, it adds information to a direct object | |||
*** as opposed to a subject complement, which adds information to a subject | |||
** usually a noun, pronoun or adjective | |||
* object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action | |||
** such as, ''appoint, call, choose, create, declare, direct, elect, make, name, tell'' | |||
*** ex. to appoint: | |||
**** ''The committee appointed her.'' | |||
***** her = the recipient of the action (direct object) | |||
** if we add a complement to the object, we are describing what she was appointed to: | |||
*** ''The committee appointed her president.'' | |||
**** note that "president" is not an indirect object | |||
***** it is not the recipient of "appoint" therefore it is a "complement" to the object | |||
**** ex. | |||
***** ''The teacher considers the student '''worthy''''' (object complement adjective) | |||
***** ''The workers painted the wall '''white''''' (object complement noun) | |||
* object complements can also come in the form of phrases or clauses | |||
** ''My mom declared the cookies '''out of bounds''''' (prepositional phrase) | |||
** ''The team selected the player '''who was the best''''' (relative clause object complement) | |||
== Predicate == | |||
* from Latin ''praedicatum'' for "something declared" | |||
** in logic, the "predicate" is the underlying claim or basis for a contention or proposition | |||
* there are several definitions of "predicate" in grammar | |||
*# the verb of a subject, also called a a "simple predicate" | |||
*# the verb of a subject and additional direct information about the subject | |||
*# everything in a complete sentence except the subject, also called a a "complete predicate" | |||
* generally, the predicate expresses the action of the subject and the result of that action | |||
== Verb == | |||
* the subject is the "doer" of the | |||
* see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts | |||
* here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence | |||
=== linking verb=== | |||
* "link" a subject to something about that subject that is not a direct action | |||
* linking verbs are: | |||
** "to be" and all of its "auxiliary verb" forms, ''am/is/are, was/were, has/have been, is/are being, might be, could, should, might, must'' | |||
** ''to become, to seem'' | |||
* ex.: | |||
** "Thank God it is Friday!" | |||
** "The kids are hungry" | |||
== Clause == | |||
{{:Clause (grammar)}} | |||
== Phrase == | |||
* = a sentence part that does not have a subject and verb (which would make it into a clause) | |||
** can be two or more words, depending on the type of phrase (see below) | |||
* phrases are connected to an IC by a comma | |||
* phrases are not complete sentences or thoughts | |||
** however, phrases are meaningful sentence parts (i.e,, they give meaning to the sentence) | |||
** that is, phrases add information to a clause or one of its parts | |||
* sources: | |||
** [https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/phrase.htm The Phrase (chompchomp.com)] | |||
** [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-phrases.html English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)] | |||
=== absolute phrase === | |||
* modifies the main clause of a sentence | |||
** and not just a single word | |||
* contains a noun and an adjective | |||
** the adjective can be a prepositional phrase or a past or present participle adjective | |||
* absolute phrases add non-essential information to a sentence | |||
=== adjective phrase === | |||
* two or more words that act as an adjective | |||
** | |||
* ex. | |||
** | |||
** can also be compound words, such as "well-adjusted" | |||
*** well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle) | |||
=== adverb phrase or adverbial phrase === | |||
* two or more words that operate as an adverb to modify an action | |||
* examples: | |||
** ''I'm staying '''until closing'''''" | |||
** '''''She'll be there '''in a minute'''''* | |||
*** * note that when a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it is technically an adverbial phrase | |||
** ''He ran '''very quickly''''' | |||
=== appositive phrase === | |||
== | * "appositive" is an adjective that means "next to" | ||
** prefix '''''ap-''''' = towards | |||
*** (related to the prefix "ad", but switches to "ap" when placed before a "P" | |||
*** such as "apparent" which means "ap"/into + "parare"/visible, i.e. "into view or sight" | |||
** root '''''posit''''' = is from Latin ''ponere'' for "to place", i.e., "in position" | |||
** suffix -'''''ive''''' makes an adjective (from a verb) | |||
* the '''appositive phrase''' is two or more words that are next to another word in order to clarify, define, or identify it | |||
** note: a phrase is two or more words that does not contain a subject-verb | |||
** ex. | |||
*** ''"Jonas Samson''', a doctor of law,''' practices on the higher court"'' | |||
*** ''"My friend '''Tony the Shark''' is an excellent card player"'' | |||
*** ''"'''A thoughtful person''', she gives good advice"'' | |||
*** ''"'''An expert on trees, soil, and insects''', arborists have great information to help design your garden"'' | |||
** a single noun can be "in apposition" (thus it is not a phrase) | |||
*** sometimes called "an appositive" (even though the words is technically an adjective) | |||
*** ex. | |||
**** ''"My friend '''Tony''' is an excellent card player"'' | |||
**** Ringing bells | |||
** when in the form of a clause, the apposition is a noun clause | |||
*** a clause has a subject + verb | |||
=== complement or requisite phrase === | |||
* a word, phrase or clause that is necessary, or required, to complete an idea or sentence | |||
** complements are not separated from the main clause by punctuation | |||
* | === infinitive phrase === | ||
** [[ | * infinitive = the "to" form of a verb | ||
* infinitives acts as a noun, adjective or adverb | |||
* infinitives are formed by adding the particle "to" before a verb | |||
** the infinitive indicates an action not as a direct action (verb) but as a thing or descriptor that indicates some action | |||
*** i.e., "to run" can be a noun, adjective or adverb, but it still indicates the action "run" | |||
* infinitive as a <u>noun</u>: | |||
** "'''''To go''' is the best decision"'' | |||
*** "to go" is the subject of the sentence | |||
** "''I decided '''to go''' to the park''" | |||
*** "to go" is the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided" | |||
**** i.e. it is the object of what "I decided" | |||
**** note that "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go" | |||
** "''The teacher reminded the class '''to study''' for the test tomorrow"'' | |||
*** "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded" | |||
*** "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class" | |||
* infinitive as an adjective | |||
** "''The dog wanted the cake '''to drop''' on the floor"'' | |||
*** "to drop" is an adjective that describes the "cake" | |||
* infinitive as an adverb | |||
** ''"Jonesy drove himself '''to learn"''''' | |||
*** "to learn" is an adverb that describes the verb "drove" | |||
**** note that in this sentence, "Jonesy drove himself to school", the "to" is a preposition and not a particle | |||
* sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive: | |||
** ex. "The waiter made me wait" | |||
*** "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait") | |||
* infinitives can have their own objects | |||
** ''She bought flowers to make him happy'' | |||
*** "to make" modifies "bought" (as an adverb) or "flowers" (as an adjective) | |||
*** "him" is the object of the infinitive "to make" | |||
**** "happy" is the object complement of "him" | |||
* see: [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)] | |||
=== introductory phrase === | |||
* introduces a main clause | |||
* generally followed by a comma to separate it from the main clause | |||
* types of introductory phrases | |||
** absolute phrase (''Tools in hand'', I went to work without reading the manual) | |||
** appositive phrase (''Quite useful'', the manual is a must-read) | |||
** infinitive phrase (''To know how'', you need to read the manual'')'' | |||
** participial phrase (''Not knowing how'', I had to read the manual) | |||
** prepositional phrase (''Inside the box'', you will find the manual) | |||
=== noun phrase === | |||
* two or more words that together act as a noun | |||
** noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners | |||
*** the little dog | |||
*** my little dog | |||
** noun phrases may be the subject or object of a sentence: | |||
*** "The little dog begged for a bone" | |||
*** "I ordered the little dog to sit" | |||
** noun phrases are easy to see as they include a noun and together act like a noun | |||
*** test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun: | |||
**** "The little dog begged for a bone"= "He begged for a bone" | |||
**** "I ordered him to sit" | |||
** gerund phrases are more difficult to distinguish | |||
*** especially as to if the gerund is acting as a noun or an adjective/adverb | |||
* gerund phrases are noun phrases: | |||
** a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.: | |||
*** "''Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar'' leaves me bored beyond crying" | |||
**** the gerund "watching" is the subject | |||
***** note that "crying" is gerund, as well | |||
** when the gerund phrase becomes descriptive, it becomes a participial or adjective phrase: | |||
*** "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective | |||
**** if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun) | |||
***** we cannot say, "running with the ball scored" so "running" = a present participle adjective not a gerund | |||
**** see also, "He scored running with the ball" | |||
**** or, "He scored 12 points running with the ball" | |||
***** in both cases the present participle acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb) | |||
*** it's easier to see with this gerund phrase: | |||
**** "The doctor said ''smoking is bad''" = gerund phrase as direct object | |||
* see [https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/gerund-phrase/ Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)] | |||
=== participial or participle phrase === | |||
* a type of adjective phrase | |||
* participial phrases "show" (describe, act as modifier) rather than "tell" (show action) | |||
* uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective | |||
** note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund) | |||
* frequently serves as an introductory or concluding phrase that qualifies or adds meaning to the main clause | |||
** ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work." | |||
*** "thinking" = present participle of the verb "to think" | |||
*** the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective | |||
*** so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work" | |||
** or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"\ | |||
=== prepositional phrase === | |||
* introduced by a preposition, which creates a relationship to a noun or a verb | |||
** ex. ''of, by, for, on'', etc. | |||
* prepositional phrases act as either adjectives or adverbs | |||
** i.e, they add information to or modify a noun or a verb | |||
* adjective ex: | |||
** "Books on sailing are fun to read" | |||
*** "on sailing" describes the types of books that are "fun to read" | |||
* adverb ex.: | |||
** "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store" | |||
*** "to the store" = adverb to describe where Stephanie rode | |||
=== verb phrase === | |||
* two or more verbs that act as a single verb | |||
** = main verb + a helping or "auxiliary" verb | |||
** ex, "I couldn't have eaten any more cake if I tried" | |||
*** "eat" = the main verb | |||
*** "couldn't" and "have" = helping / auxiliary verbs | |||
*** note: "if I tried" is an adverb clause (describes "could have eaten") | |||
**** = a clause because it has a subject, "I" and a verb, "tried" | |||
**** = a subordinate clause bc of the subordinating conjunction, "if", which makes the clause, "I tried" into an incomplete thought | |||
== Style & usage == | |||
>> note: to create larger entry for style & usage to be linked here << | |||
=== active versus passive voice === | |||
==== active voice==== | |||
* = the subject and verb are directly stated | |||
** as in, ''He gave the dog a bone'' = subject + verb + indirect object + object | |||
* transitive verbs (which require an object) are always active voice | |||
** ''I ate the entire pizza'' | |||
==== passive voice ==== | |||
* = the verb acts upon the subject, i.e., the subject follows the verb | |||
** as in, ''The dog was given a bone by them'' = object + verb + subject (+ prep/phrase) | |||
* passive voice uses the auxiliary verb "to be" + the past participle of the action verb | |||
** as in, ''The entire pizza '''was eaten''' by me'' | |||
* when to use passive voice: | |||
** passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence | |||
*** so if the object of the sentence is the important idea, then passive voice is fine | |||
*** especially if the subject is irrelevant to the idea: | |||
*** ex. ''The dog was given a bone'' | |||
**** focus is on the dog and the bone, and we don't need to state who gave it the bone | |||
* passive voice can be "weaselly" when used to avoid responsibility for something: | |||
** Son: "''Dad, your favorite glass was broken''" | |||
** Father: "''Who broke it?''" | |||
** Son: "''Uh, somebody...''" | |||
* see | |||
** [[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/ Active vs. Passive Voice (grammarly.com)]] | |||
=== periods === | |||
* inside or outside qoutations? | |||
** see: https://style.mla.org/punctuation-and-quotation-marks/ | |||
* spaces after periods? | |||
** see https://style.mla.org/number-of-spaces-after-period/ | |||
== Grammar lesson plans == | == Grammar lesson plans == | ||
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** offers examples of the need for precision in language and downfalls of poor usage and incorrect grammar | ** offers examples of the need for precision in language and downfalls of poor usage and incorrect grammar | ||
== | == Conjunction == | ||
* | * conjunctions conjoin, combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses) | ||
=== conjunctions that combine words ==== | |||
* coordinators | |||
** coordinate or combine individual words or phrases: | |||
*** as in: | |||
**** ''apples '''and''' oranges are similar '''and''' distinct fruits'' | |||
**** ''I only like apples '''or''' oranges that are ripe'' | |||
**** | |||
* correlative conjunction | |||
** creates a combination or contrast of actions or ideas: | |||
** ''and, or'', ''neither, nor'', etc. | |||
* | |||
=== | ==== conjunctions that combine sentence parts ==== | ||
** coordinating conjunction | |||
** subordinating conjunction (SWABI) | |||
** | ==== conjunctions that coordinate or conjoin ideas==== | ||
** | ** conjunctive adverb | ||
* see | |||
** [[Parts of speech#Conjunction]] for more on conjunctions | |||
* see | |||
** [[ | |||
== Introductory clauses & phrases == | == Introductory clauses & phrases == | ||
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=== introductory phrase === | === introductory phrase === | ||
* a phrase that introduces an independent clause | |||
** usually a prepositional phrase or a participial phrase | |||
*** ''"'''On Thursdays''', I get out."'' (prepositional phrase) | |||
*** '''''"Feeling hungry,''' I bought some fries"'' (participial phrase) | |||
== Modifiers | == Modifiers == | ||
* modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence | * modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence | ||
* modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader | * modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader | ||
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** Nouns as modifiers | ** Nouns as modifiers | ||
=== | === intensifiers === | ||
* enhance or strengthen the meaning of a word | * enhance or strengthen the meaning of a word | ||
** (opposite of qualifiers which limit the meaning of a word) | ** (opposite of qualifiers which limit the meaning of a word) | ||
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* [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)] | * [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)] | ||
=== qualifiers === | |||
* qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word | |||
* qualifiers can be adverbs or determiners | |||
* types of qualifiers: | |||
** adverbs: ''always, frequently sometimes, usually,'' | |||
** determiners: ''few, many, some,'' | |||
=== modifier errors: dangling modifiers === | |||
* a modifier that has no word or phrase to modify | |||
** i.e., it stands by itself, which is inherently illogical since a modifier must have something to modify | |||
** usually, dangling modifiers occur with participial phrases (using the -ing present participle) or prepositional phrases | |||
** dangling modifiers frequently mistake the target of the modification, such as modifying one thing, then discussing another | |||
** examples: | |||
** wrong: ''While playing around, it was late'' | |||
*** correct: ''While playing around, I noticed it was late" | |||
** wrong: ''Driving to school, I forgot my homework'' | |||
*** correct: ''Driving to school, I realized I forgot my homework'' | |||
=== modifier errors: misplaced modifiers === | |||
* a modifier that is next to or seemingly modifies the word or phrase | |||
* examples. | |||
** wrong: ''The student failed the test in the back of the class'' | |||
*** correct: ''The student in the back of the class failed the test'' | |||
** wrong: ''The teacher gave a grade to the student that was really good'' | |||
*** correct: ''The teacher gave a really good grade to the student'' | |||
** wrong: ''Jamie chased the cat in his pajamas'' | |||
*** correct: ''In her pajamas, Jamie chased the cat'' | |||
=== modifier errors: pre and post adverbs === | |||
* modifier placement can change the meaning of a sentence: | |||
* example: | |||
** ''The student almost failed every test'' | |||
** v. ''The student failed almost every test'' | |||
*** here the modifier "almost" is an adverb | |||
** ''The mechanic only works on trucks on Tuesdays'' | |||
*** = on Tuesdays the mechanic works on trucks and nothing else | |||
** v. ''The mechanic works on trucks only on Tuesdays'' | |||
*** = it is only on Tuesdays that the mechanic will work on trucks (but might also work on cars, as well) | |||
== Sentence diagramming == | |||
[[File:Purported-purpose-of-punctuation-diagram.jpg|450px|right|The diagrammed sentence is build around the core subject-verb]] | |||
* diagraming sentences means identifying word and sentence parts | |||
** and arranging them according to their relationship to the main clause/s of the sentence | |||
* sentence diagrams help students to understand the grammatical mechanics of a sentence | |||
* while not taught in schools, sentence diagramming can be empowering | |||
* see [[Parts of Speech]] | |||
* here for a diagrammed sentence showing noun phrases: | |||
** [https://parentingpatch.com/using-nouns-noun-phrases-object-complements/ Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements (parentingpatch.com)] | |||
** [https://parentingpatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2013-03-09-Using-Nouns-and-Noun-Phrases-as-Object-Complements-1.jpg Click here for diagrammed sentence image (parentingpatch.com)] | |||
== vocabulary & definitions == | |||
=== Attributive === | |||
=== Appositive === | |||
=== Clause === | |||
=== Colloquial === | |||
===Denotation and Connotation === | |||
* denotation = literal meaning of a word | |||
* connotation = associations wit words | |||
** generally positive or negative associations | |||
=== Idiom/ Idiomatic === | |||
* grammatical idiom | |||
** words or phrases that are used simply because they are used | |||
** = don't have specific rules | |||
** note: prepositions are not idiomatic | |||
* idiom as sayings or expressions | |||
** idioms are common sayings that express an idea figuratively | |||
*** but if taken literally are nonsensical | |||
** ex. | |||
*** "''Don't beat around the bush''" | |||
*** "''Chip off the old block''" | |||
*** "''Got the extra mile''" | |||
=== Phrase === | |||
=== Grammatical oddities === | |||
== | ==== anacoluthon ==== | ||
>> see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacoluthon | |||
Latest revision as of 23:50, 16 April 2024
Grammar
- = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words)
- technically, grammar is
- phonology = sounds that create word parts and words)
- morphology = how words are formed and interact with each other
- syntax = rules for the arrangement of words to create meaning
- syntax defines the semantical purpose (meaning) of language
Article purpose
- this article focuses on sentences and sentence parts, including:
- sentence definition
- clauses & phrases
- types of nouns, verbs, adjectives and modifiers & their use in a sentence
Note: "punctuation" and "parts of speech" are sub-categories of "grammar"
- see also:
- Punctuation
- Parts of Speech for grammar and usage rules on word categories
- List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech categories, and the rules governing their use
- SAT Writing has grammar and punctuation rules and advice
Other related categories:
- category:linguistics
- homographs including:
- homophones, homonyms & heteronyms
Note on abbreviations
- IC = "independent clause"
- DC = "dependent clause"
- SV = "subject + verb"
- SVO = "subject + verb + object"
- CB = College Board
- SAT practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]
Sentence[edit | edit source]
- a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate
- i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought.
- "Go!" = the subject, usually, "you" is implied
- this form of a command is called an "imperative" or "exclamatory" sentence.
- sentence complexity is created around the core Subject Verb Object/Predicate by adding:
- clauses
- modifiers
- phrases
- prepositions, etc.
Constituents[edit | edit source]
![](/w/images/thumb/8/8d/Sentence-constituent-parts_school4schools-wiki-grammar.jpg/500px-Sentence-constituent-parts_school4schools-wiki-grammar.jpg)
- constituent = a word or words that creates a unique grammatical unit in a sentence
- word origin:
- con- = with
- stitu = from PIE -sta and Latin statuare for "to stand"
- -ent = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun)
- word origin:
- constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence
- constituent parts operates as an hierarchy
- i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun
- constituent parts operates as an hierarchy
Categories of sentence purposes[edit | edit source]
- declarative sentence
- makes a statement
- most sentences are declarative in that they state something
- exclamatory sentence
- = a statement of urgency or emotion
- also called an "exclamation"
- ex. "That really hurt!"
- = a statement of urgency or emotion
- interrogative sentence
- = a question or a request
- ex. "Is it raining?"
- may include rhetorical questions, such as, "Why does it have to rain now?" which may also be considered declarative
- imperative sentence
- = a or command
- ex., "Get to work!"
- may also be an exclamatory statement
- ex. "No!"
- = a or command
case[edit | edit source]
- case = circumstance or situation
- dictionary definition of "case"
- Inflected forms of a noun, adjective or pronoun that express the semantic relation of the word to others in the sentence
- in grammar, then, case is the "circumstance" of a word, how it is "situated" in a sentence
- case indicates the form and relationship of certain words
- case regards nouns, adjectives and verbs
- "inflected" means changed or emphasized
- word "inflections" are changes in a word according to chase
- who v. whom, or I go v. he goes
- the change at the end of the word, its stem, is an inflection
subjective v. objective case[edit | edit source]
- subjective = a point of view, an opinion
- objective = without opinion, a universal point of view
common errors of subjective v. objective case[edit | edit source]
- "between you and I"= incorrect
- "between" is a preposition, which uses the objective case of the noun
- thus it should be, "between you and me"
- "she told you and I to be quiet" = incorrect
- "she" = subject, "you" = the object ("she told you" or "she told me")
- "who do you love = incorrect and kinda correct
- "who" is an object, so should be "whom"
- however, common use of this expression has made "who do you love" an idiomatic expression
Subject[edit | edit source]
- one of two parts of a sentence or a clause
- subject + predicate (verb)
- the subject is the "doer" of the
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
subject complement[edit | edit source]
- adds information to a subject following a linking verb (is, seems, sounds, etc.)
- the word that follows the linking verb "complements" or "completes" the subect
- "It was late"
- "Gillian is a doctor"
- the word that follows the linking verb "complements" or "completes" the subect
subject phrase[edit | edit source]
- the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word
- a phrase = 2 or more words that do not contain a finite verb (verb that has a subject)
- a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence
- ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
- so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,
- "The weather conditions are poor"
- "The conditions of those teams are poor"
- "Being smart helps on that test"
- so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,
- ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
subject clause[edit | edit source]
- just as a subject may be a compound phrase ("Getting there is the best part of the trip"), a noun clause (contains a finite verb) may act as a subject (or object).
- noun clauses tend to use "that" as a subordinating conjunction that creates the noun clause
- ex.
- The team that played smarter, not harder, won.SUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause --------------> |
- A question I thought about beforehand escaped me when it was time to ask itSUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause ---------> |
Object[edit | edit source]
- the recipient of the actions
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- objects follow "transitive" verbs, which indicate an action that necessarily "acts" upon something
- ex. "I hit the ball"
- hit = transitive verb (requires an object)
- ball = the recipient of the action
- ex. "I hit the ball"
object complement[edit | edit source]
- a word that modifies a direct object
- that is, it adds information to a direct object
- as opposed to a subject complement, which adds information to a subject
- usually a noun, pronoun or adjective
- that is, it adds information to a direct object
- object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action
- such as, appoint, call, choose, create, declare, direct, elect, make, name, tell
- ex. to appoint:
- The committee appointed her.
- her = the recipient of the action (direct object)
- The committee appointed her.
- ex. to appoint:
- if we add a complement to the object, we are describing what she was appointed to:
- The committee appointed her president.
- note that "president" is not an indirect object
- it is not the recipient of "appoint" therefore it is a "complement" to the object
- ex.
- The teacher considers the student worthy (object complement adjective)
- The workers painted the wall white (object complement noun)
- note that "president" is not an indirect object
- The committee appointed her president.
- such as, appoint, call, choose, create, declare, direct, elect, make, name, tell
- object complements can also come in the form of phrases or clauses
- My mom declared the cookies out of bounds (prepositional phrase)
- The team selected the player who was the best (relative clause object complement)
Predicate[edit | edit source]
- from Latin praedicatum for "something declared"
- in logic, the "predicate" is the underlying claim or basis for a contention or proposition
- there are several definitions of "predicate" in grammar
- the verb of a subject, also called a a "simple predicate"
- the verb of a subject and additional direct information about the subject
- everything in a complete sentence except the subject, also called a a "complete predicate"
- generally, the predicate expresses the action of the subject and the result of that action
Verb[edit | edit source]
- the subject is the "doer" of the
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
linking verb[edit | edit source]
- "link" a subject to something about that subject that is not a direct action
- linking verbs are:
- "to be" and all of its "auxiliary verb" forms, am/is/are, was/were, has/have been, is/are being, might be, could, should, might, must
- to become, to seem
- ex.:
- "Thank God it is Friday!"
- "The kids are hungry"
Clause[edit | edit source]
Clause
- = a part of a sentence that has a subject and a verb
- and may or may not be a complete sentence or thought
What a clause is and is not[edit | edit source]
- a clause is part of a sentence
- a sentence is a grammatically correct and complete thought
- i.e., it contains a subject and a verb and completes a thought
- ex. "I go." = a sentence bc it contains and subject and verb and completes a thought
- whereas, "I send" contains a subject and verb but is not a complete thought
- "send" is a transitive verb that requires an object, as in "I send a letter"
- a sentence may contain one or more clauses
- i.e., it contains a subject and a verb and completes a thought
- phrase = a part of a sentence that has two or more words but does not have both a subject and a verb
- if a sentence part contains a subject and a verb, it is a clause
- a sentence is a grammatically correct and complete thought
- note: Santa is not a clause
Description | Grammatical unit | Is a clause | Is not a clause |
---|---|---|---|
a grammatically complete thought without another clause | Sentence | ✘ | |
a grammatically complete thought that is part of a larger sentence that contains another clause | independent clause | ✓ | |
the main clause of a sentence is | independent clause | ✓ | |
two independent clauses combined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) | coordinate clauses (both independent) | ✓ | |
a part of a sentence that contains a subject & a verb but is not a complete thought | dependent clause | ✓ | |
a part of a sentence that contains two or more words but does not have both a subject & verb (not a finite verb) | phrase | ✘ | |
Rides a sleigh driven by reindeer through the air to deliver Christmas presents | proper noun | ✘ |
- sources for clauses:
- Types of Clauses (cliffnotes.com)
- [Clauses - Restrictive and Nonrestrictive (kentlaw.edu)
- this source is interesting as it addresses precision in language in terms of the law and court cases
- (Clauses: Definition, Types & Examples (learngrammar.net)
main or dominant clause[edit | edit source]
- main or dominant clause = an IC (independent clause)
- the "main" clause is the clause the creates the "main idea" of the sentence
- = that part of the sentence that makes the complete and most important, or "dominant" thought of the phrase
- i.e., the main clause or part of the sentence that states its primary purpose or idea
- everything else is additional information
- = that part of the sentence that makes the complete and most important, or "dominant" thought of the phrase
- for the SAT test, the "dominant /main clause" is that core idea of a sentence that is the focus of the sentence
- SAT tests measure #Emphasis shift
- emphasis shift measures if the correct form of the sentence "emphasizes" the core or main idea of the sentence
- passive voice de-emphasizes the dominant clause
- i.e. OBJECT VERB SUBJECT
- dominant /main clauses employ direct voice, i.e. SVO
independent clause[edit | edit source]
- Independent Clause (IC)
- = a sentence part that can stand as a complete sentence and thought
- it is a clause because it is attached to or has another clause/s attached to it (otherwise it'd just be a sentence)
- IC contains SUBJECT + VERB at a minimum (SV)
- IC usually contains SUBJECT VERB OBJECT (SVO)
- since SUBJECT VERB OBJECT form the core of a sentence there is no punctuation separating them, with the following exceptions:
- parenthetical information (commas, dashes and parentheses) can separate SVO from each other
- i.e., S (parenthetical info) V (parenthetical info) O
- click EXPAND for examples of parenthetical separation of S from V and O:
- parentheses: S (parenthetical info) V (parenthetical info) O
- commas: S, parenthetical info, V, parenthetical info, O
- dashes: S -- parenthetical info -- V -- parenthetical info -- O
- ex. "Alex, an experienced pilot, landed the plane expertly."
- S= Alex V= landed O= plane
- other parenthetical punctuation:
- "Alex (an experienced pilot) landed the plane expertly."
- "Alex -- an experienced pilot -- landed the plane expertly."
- two commas, two dashes or two parentheses = parenthetical phrase
- ex. Alex, and experienced pilot, landed, for the second time that day, the plane expertly.
- this is an awkward sentence but using it here to demonstrate how commas can separate a SUBJECT VERB OBJECT if used parenthetically
- compare this construction:
- "Alex, an experienced pilot, landed the plane expertly." to:
- "The experienced pilot, Alex, landed the plane expertly"
- "The experienced pilot Alex landed the plane expertly"
- each form creates a different emphasis
- in this case, the parenthetical construction emphasizes that it was Alex who landed the plane and that
- if, for example, Alex was an inexperienced pilot, we might prefer a construction that emphasizes it, so,
- instead of, "Alex, an inexperienced pilot, landed the plane expertly."
- we might say, "The inexperienced pilot, Alex, landed the plane expertly" or "The inexperienced pilot Alex landed the plane expertly"
- ex. Alex, and experienced pilot, landed, for the second time that day, the plane expertly.
- click EXPAND for example of SVO lists:
- S, S V O
- S, S and S V and V O
- S, S and S V, and V O
- S, S and S V, V and V O and O
- S, S and S V, V and V O, O and O
- note that with commas that separate a subject, verb, and/or object the final word in the list must not be separated from the related S V or O
- ex.
- "Alex, Nia, and Joan are all experienced pilots"
- "Alex, Nia, and Joan relied on, used, and proved their skills by landing their planes expertly"
dependent clause[edit | edit source]
- "Dependent Clause" (DC) is a sentence part that contains a subject and a verb but does not complete a thought
- also called "subordinate clause" (see below)
- DC clauses are attached to an IC
- DC clauses add information to but are not necessary for the IC to make sense
- Note: a sentence part that does not contain both a noun and a verb is a phrase
- yet some sources call non-IC sentence parts "dependent clauses" when they are actually "phrases" since they do not contain a subject + verb
- types of DC:
- subordinate clause: an IC that has been "subordinated" into a DC by a "subordinating conjunction"
- adverb or adverbial clause: a subordinate clause that specifically modifies a verb, usually in terms of time, duration, extent, or condition (if)
- noun clause: acts as a noun
- relative clause: acts as an adjective to define a noun; can be restrictive or non-restrictive (see below)
Click EXPAND for examples of DC:
- "Since I ate breakfast late, I'll skip lunch"
- "Since I ate" = an incomplete thought and so not an IC
- example of a phrase that is not a clause as it does not contain a verb:
- "Going to the store, I realized I left my wallet at home."
- going = an -ing verb acting as a modifier or adjective and known as a "participal"
- therefore, "going to the store" = a "participial phrase" and is not a DC
- see
- "Going to the store, I realized I left my wallet at home."
- Dependent clauses are introduced by a "dependent word"
Type of Dependent Clause | Dependent word | Dependent word type |
---|---|---|
Subordinate or Adverb clause | after, although, since, etc. | subordinating conjunction (adverb) |
Relative clause | that, which, who, whom, whose | relative pronoun |
Noun clause | that, what, whatever, who, whoever | pronoun |
- see:
subordinate clause[edit | edit source]
- a clause that is formed by adding a subordinating conjunction
- which "subordinates" or turns an IC clause into a dependent clause
- some sources refer to all dependent clauses as "subordinate clauses"
- in the sense that a subordinate clause is "subordinate" to an independent clause
- here will refer to subordinate clauses as those that add additional and not required, or requisite, information to the main clause
- in this sense, subordinate clauses are preceded by "subordinating conjunctions" (see below)
- note also that "adverb clauses" are subordinate clauses
subordinating conjunction[edit | edit source]
after although as as if as long as as much as as though because before by the time even even if even though |
if if only if when if then in case in order to just just as now now that |
once provided that rather than since so that supposing than though till unless |
when whenever were whereas where if whenever wherever whether while whose whoever why |
note: that, which and who are relative pronouns that can act as subordinating conjunctions in some cases |
- subordinating conjunction "subordinates" an IC into a DC
- i.e, (SC) renders or turns an IC into a DC
- the reason is the the SC creates the need for additional information after the SVO
- ex. "I love baseball" = a complete sentence and thought
- by adding a SC to the sentence, it is no longer a complete thought:
- ex. "Since I love baseball"
- "Since" = SC and it "subordinates the IC "I love baseball" by creating the need for additional information in order to complete the thought:
- "Since I love baseball, I watch it every chance I get."
relative or "adjective" clause[edit | edit source]
- = a dependent clause that contains a subject-verb, but provides additional information and is not a complete sentence of thought by itself
- the "subject" of the clause is a pronoun (thus "relative," as pronouns relate to a noun)
- relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun (see table)
- relative clauses can be either restrictive or non-restrictive, per below
Pronoun | For | Rule |
---|---|---|
that | people or things | - subject or object: adds required information (restrictive, so no punctuation)
- acts as the subject of the relative clause |
what | things | - object (acted upon) |
which | things | - subject or object: adds additional information (can be restrictive or non-restrictive)
- acts as the subject of the relative clause |
who | people | subject (does the action): he, she, we, they (restrictive, so no punctuation)
- acts as the subject of the relative clause |
whoever | people | - subject or object of the relative clause |
whom | people | - object (acted upon): him, her, us, them
- creates but is not the subject of the relative clause |
whose | people or things | possessive form of whom: his, her, us, their |
* Source: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/relative-clauses/ |
- ex.
- "Sue, who is always late, showed up on time."
- "The PG-13 movie scared me, which was surprising."
- ex.
- restrictive relative clauses can be replaced by an adjective:
- The thing that scares me about horror movies is the suspense
- (relative clause in bold)
- is equivalent to
- The scary thing about horror movies is the suspense
- (adjective in bold)
- The scary thing about horror movies is the suspense
- the choice to use the restrictive relative clause or an adjective depends upon the extent the writer wishes to emphasize the action (verb) in the relative clause
- The thing that scares me about horror movies is the suspense
- Sources:
restrictive relative clause[edit | edit source]
- goes by various names: adjective, necessary, requisite or defining clause
- "adjective clause" since it describes a previously stated (antecedent) noun or idea
- "necessary" or "requisite" = the idea is the clause or phrase is necessary
- "defining" = the meaning of the sentence is defined by the clause
- or: the sentence is not a complete thought without the clause
- restrictive clauses are not separated by punctuation
- i.e.: since the information is necessary, there is no pause
- ex.: "Glue that sticks to both my fingers and the paper is a pain"
- vs. "Glue, that sticks to both my fingers and the paper, is a pain"
- since the parenthetical phrase is "non-defining" (can be removed), that would leave us with only "Glue is a pain" which lacks the defining information as to what type of glue is a pain, the kind "that sticks to both my fingers and the paper"
- "Dogs that are friendly are nice"
- that are friendly is restrictive because the sentence would otherwise be "Dogs are nice"
- by adding that are friendly, we have necessary information to make a meaningful sentence
- that are friendly is restrictive because the sentence would otherwise be "Dogs are nice"
- vs. "Glue, that sticks to both my fingers and the paper, is a pain"
- non-restrictive clauses do not change the meaning of the sentence:
- "Friendly dogs, which I like, are nice"
- the main clause, 'Friendly dogs are nice" is meaning.
- adding "which I like" does not change the meaning of the sentence
- the main clause, 'Friendly dogs are nice" is meaning.
- "Friendly dogs, which I like, are nice"
because: when to use a comma[edit | edit source]
- because is a subordinating conjunction and not a relative pronoun
- normally, a subordinate clause preceding the main clause would be separated by a comma:
- Because it rained, we stayed inside"
- and, normally, a subordinate clause following the main clause would not be separated by a comma:
- We stayed inside because it rained
- the reason is because the subordinate clause is requisite (necessary) information
- however, there are times with the subordinate clause starting with because and following the main (independent) clause can be separated by a comma
- if the information following the because is distinct and not directly explanatory (normally, "because" offers an explanation, making it requisite)
- ex. We didn't play in the rain, because Mom said we might catch a cold
- here, the speaker may wish for the subordinate clause following "because" to offer additional and not requisite information
- other examples of because preceded by a comma:
- Even if it's scary, don't close your eyes, because you'll miss the best part!
- Playing tennis is fun, because it means the weather is good
- normally, a subordinate clause preceding the main clause would be separated by a comma:
non-restrictive relative clause[edit | edit source]
- or "Non-defining relative clause"
- or "non-essential" clause
- = the additional information added by the clause is not necessary (or essential) for a complete sentence or thought
- ex.: "Glue, which I hate to use, always sticks to my hands."
- "which I hate to use" is not essential to the idea that "Glue always sticks to my hands"
- see Restrictive relative clauses for sources
Other types of clauses[edit | edit source]
adjective clause[edit | edit source]
- = a dependent clause that contains a subject and verb but acts as a modifier or adjective
- see "relative clause"
adverb clause (or adverbial clause)[edit | edit source]
- = a subordinate clause created by a subordinating conjunction and adding information to the action of a sentence:
- adverbial clauses define or add information as to how, how much, when, where, why (cause/effect):
- examples:
- I'm staying until the park closes
- As my grades sank, my heart sank, as well
- I will bring my umbrella since it is raining
- I got a good grade because I studied hard
- adjunct v. disjuncts
- adjuncts are integrated in a phrase or clause
- disjuncts are peripheral (outside or, or on the edge of)
- adjuncts are integrated in a phrase or clause
finite and non-finite clauses[edit | edit source]
- distinguishes between clauses with finite verbs (subject-verb) and those with an implied but not present verb (represented by a non-finite verb)
- the verbs in a finite clause show tense (as would any finite verb)
- the verbs in a non-finite clause do not show tense (as with a non-finite verb)
- by "tense" we mean its conjugation
- the non-finite verb will be in the simple present
- ex. A streetcar named 'Desire' is not necessarily the one you want to take
- by "tense" we mean its conjugation
- grammarians refer to these clauses in the context of "tense"
- a finite clause shows tense and is usually an IC
- ex. "Trey sent that text yesterday"
- non-finite clause does not show tense and is usually a DC
- non-finite clause adds information to the main clause (IC), but without marking "tense" (past, present or future)
- it is the IC that shows the tense:
- "She watched the little girl play with a hoolahoop"
- "She watched" = finite-clause
- "little girl play with a hoolahoop" = non-finite clause
- note that this non-finite clause may also be expressed as a participial phrase:
- "She watched the little girl playing with a hoolahoop"
- (which also creates a potential misplaced modifier, as in this case it becomes unclear who was "playing with the hoolahop, "she" (who watched) or the "girl"
- "She watched the little girl playing with a hoolahoop"
- "She watched the little girl play with a hoolahoop"
- it is the IC that shows the tense:
- non-finite clause adds information to the main clause (IC), but without marking "tense" (past, present or future)
- for more:
noun clause[edit | edit source]
- = a clause that functions as a thing or idea (noun)
- = usually introduced by what, when, where, wherever, who, whoever
- = a clause that acts as a subject, object, subject complement or object of a preposition, ex.:
- subject: "What I love to eat the most is steak"
- "What I love to eat the most" = a clause that operates as the subject to the verb "is"
- "Wherever we end up is fine with me"
- subject complement or object:
- "The teacher liked what Johnny said"
- "I taught whoever would listen"
- preposition:
- "She recognized him for who he really is"
- "Saddened by what he read, he cried"
- "He was startled by what she said"
- "for" and "by" = prepositions, so the noun clause is the object of the preposition
- subject: "What I love to eat the most is steak"
- pronouns introducing noun clause
- pronouns such as that, who, whoever, can introduce a noun clause
- whereas "that" and "who" would be a relative pronoun, introducing a relative clause
- if it creates a clause that acts as a noun and not an adjective, it is a noun clause
- ex.:
- Whoever wants it the most gets it
- [noun clause=subject ] verb
- note the difference between "who" and "whoever" in these sentences:
- Jesus saves him who believes
- "who believes" = relative or adjective clause that describes "him"
- Jesus saves whoever believes
- "whoever believes" = noun clause acting as direct object of "saves"
- Jesus saves him who believes
- such noun clauses can also be used in "apposition"
- appositive = a noun phrase that describes another noun or sentence part
- Mr. Jones, a farmer, hates rabbits
- "a farmer" = a noun phrase that tells us who is Mr. Jones
- Mr. Jones, a farmer, hates rabbits
- using the pronoun "that'
- appositive = a noun phrase that describes another noun or sentence part
- see Using Noun Clauses as Appositives (Parenting Patch)
- note that this article provides examples of a noun clause within a preposition is incorrect:
- such as, My decision, for you to leave the day after us, stands.
- "for" is a preposition and "to leave" is an infinitive, so this is not a clause
- "for you" is a prepositional phrase
- that is further modified by the infinitive adjective "to leave" and its object, "the day after us"
- "for" is a preposition and "to leave" is an infinitive, so this is not a clause
- pronouns such as that, who, whoever, can introduce a noun clause
Phrase[edit | edit source]
- = a sentence part that does not have a subject and verb (which would make it into a clause)
- can be two or more words, depending on the type of phrase (see below)
- phrases are connected to an IC by a comma
- phrases are not complete sentences or thoughts
- however, phrases are meaningful sentence parts (i.e,, they give meaning to the sentence)
- that is, phrases add information to a clause or one of its parts
- sources:
absolute phrase[edit | edit source]
- modifies the main clause of a sentence
- and not just a single word
- contains a noun and an adjective
- the adjective can be a prepositional phrase or a past or present participle adjective
- absolute phrases add non-essential information to a sentence
adjective phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more words that act as an adjective
- ex.
- can also be compound words, such as "well-adjusted"
- well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle)
adverb phrase or adverbial phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more words that operate as an adverb to modify an action
- examples:
- I'm staying until closing"
- She'll be there in a minute*
- * note that when a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it is technically an adverbial phrase
- He ran very quickly
appositive phrase[edit | edit source]
- "appositive" is an adjective that means "next to"
- prefix ap- = towards
- (related to the prefix "ad", but switches to "ap" when placed before a "P"
- such as "apparent" which means "ap"/into + "parare"/visible, i.e. "into view or sight"
- root posit = is from Latin ponere for "to place", i.e., "in position"
- suffix -ive makes an adjective (from a verb)
- prefix ap- = towards
- the appositive phrase is two or more words that are next to another word in order to clarify, define, or identify it
- note: a phrase is two or more words that does not contain a subject-verb
- ex.
- "Jonas Samson, a doctor of law, practices on the higher court"
- "My friend Tony the Shark is an excellent card player"
- "A thoughtful person, she gives good advice"
- "An expert on trees, soil, and insects, arborists have great information to help design your garden"
- a single noun can be "in apposition" (thus it is not a phrase)
- sometimes called "an appositive" (even though the words is technically an adjective)
- ex.
- "My friend Tony is an excellent card player"
- Ringing bells
- when in the form of a clause, the apposition is a noun clause
- a clause has a subject + verb
complement or requisite phrase[edit | edit source]
- a word, phrase or clause that is necessary, or required, to complete an idea or sentence
- complements are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
infinitive phrase[edit | edit source]
- infinitive = the "to" form of a verb
- infinitives acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
- infinitives are formed by adding the particle "to" before a verb
- the infinitive indicates an action not as a direct action (verb) but as a thing or descriptor that indicates some action
- i.e., "to run" can be a noun, adjective or adverb, but it still indicates the action "run"
- the infinitive indicates an action not as a direct action (verb) but as a thing or descriptor that indicates some action
- infinitive as a noun:
- "To go is the best decision"
- "to go" is the subject of the sentence
- "I decided to go to the park"
- "to go" is the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
- i.e. it is the object of what "I decided"
- note that "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go"
- "to go" is the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
- "The teacher reminded the class to study for the test tomorrow"
- "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
- "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class"
- "To go is the best decision"
- infinitive as an adjective
- "The dog wanted the cake to drop on the floor"
- "to drop" is an adjective that describes the "cake"
- "The dog wanted the cake to drop on the floor"
- infinitive as an adverb
- "Jonesy drove himself to learn"
- "to learn" is an adverb that describes the verb "drove"
- note that in this sentence, "Jonesy drove himself to school", the "to" is a preposition and not a particle
- "to learn" is an adverb that describes the verb "drove"
- "Jonesy drove himself to learn"
- sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive:
- ex. "The waiter made me wait"
- "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait")
- ex. "The waiter made me wait"
- infinitives can have their own objects
- She bought flowers to make him happy
- "to make" modifies "bought" (as an adverb) or "flowers" (as an adjective)
- "him" is the object of the infinitive "to make"
- "happy" is the object complement of "him"
- She bought flowers to make him happy
- see: Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)
introductory phrase[edit | edit source]
- introduces a main clause
- generally followed by a comma to separate it from the main clause
- types of introductory phrases
- absolute phrase (Tools in hand, I went to work without reading the manual)
- appositive phrase (Quite useful, the manual is a must-read)
- infinitive phrase (To know how, you need to read the manual)
- participial phrase (Not knowing how, I had to read the manual)
- prepositional phrase (Inside the box, you will find the manual)
noun phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more words that together act as a noun
- noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
- the little dog
- my little dog
- noun phrases may be the subject or object of a sentence:
- "The little dog begged for a bone"
- "I ordered the little dog to sit"
- noun phrases are easy to see as they include a noun and together act like a noun
- test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
- "The little dog begged for a bone"= "He begged for a bone"
- "I ordered him to sit"
- test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
- gerund phrases are more difficult to distinguish
- especially as to if the gerund is acting as a noun or an adjective/adverb
- noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
- gerund phrases are noun phrases:
- a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
- "Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar leaves me bored beyond crying"
- the gerund "watching" is the subject
- note that "crying" is gerund, as well
- the gerund "watching" is the subject
- "Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar leaves me bored beyond crying"
- when the gerund phrase becomes descriptive, it becomes a participial or adjective phrase:
- "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
- if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
- we cannot say, "running with the ball scored" so "running" = a present participle adjective not a gerund
- see also, "He scored running with the ball"
- or, "He scored 12 points running with the ball"
- in both cases the present participle acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb)
- if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
- it's easier to see with this gerund phrase:
- "The doctor said smoking is bad" = gerund phrase as direct object
- "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
- a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
- see Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)
participial or participle phrase[edit | edit source]
- a type of adjective phrase
- participial phrases "show" (describe, act as modifier) rather than "tell" (show action)
- uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective
- note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund)
- frequently serves as an introductory or concluding phrase that qualifies or adds meaning to the main clause
- ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work."
- "thinking" = present participle of the verb "to think"
- the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective
- so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work"
- or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"\
- ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work."
prepositional phrase[edit | edit source]
- introduced by a preposition, which creates a relationship to a noun or a verb
- ex. of, by, for, on, etc.
- prepositional phrases act as either adjectives or adverbs
- i.e, they add information to or modify a noun or a verb
- adjective ex:
- "Books on sailing are fun to read"
- "on sailing" describes the types of books that are "fun to read"
- "Books on sailing are fun to read"
- adverb ex.:
- "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store"
- "to the store" = adverb to describe where Stephanie rode
- "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store"
verb phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more verbs that act as a single verb
- = main verb + a helping or "auxiliary" verb
- ex, "I couldn't have eaten any more cake if I tried"
- "eat" = the main verb
- "couldn't" and "have" = helping / auxiliary verbs
- note: "if I tried" is an adverb clause (describes "could have eaten")
- = a clause because it has a subject, "I" and a verb, "tried"
- = a subordinate clause bc of the subordinating conjunction, "if", which makes the clause, "I tried" into an incomplete thought
Style & usage[edit | edit source]
>> note: to create larger entry for style & usage to be linked here <<
active versus passive voice[edit | edit source]
active voice[edit | edit source]
- = the subject and verb are directly stated
- as in, He gave the dog a bone = subject + verb + indirect object + object
- transitive verbs (which require an object) are always active voice
- I ate the entire pizza
passive voice[edit | edit source]
- = the verb acts upon the subject, i.e., the subject follows the verb
- as in, The dog was given a bone by them = object + verb + subject (+ prep/phrase)
- passive voice uses the auxiliary verb "to be" + the past participle of the action verb
- as in, The entire pizza was eaten by me
- when to use passive voice:
- passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence
- so if the object of the sentence is the important idea, then passive voice is fine
- especially if the subject is irrelevant to the idea:
- ex. The dog was given a bone
- focus is on the dog and the bone, and we don't need to state who gave it the bone
- passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence
- passive voice can be "weaselly" when used to avoid responsibility for something:
- Son: "Dad, your favorite glass was broken"
- Father: "Who broke it?"
- Son: "Uh, somebody..."
- see
periods[edit | edit source]
- inside or outside qoutations?
- spaces after periods?
Grammar lesson plans[edit | edit source]
- Understanding sentence cores & how to build out ideas into complex sentences
- students are to write a series of three or four simple statements of fact.
- such as,
- I like dogs.
- I have a dog.
- My dog's name is Dudu.
- Dudu is fun to play with.
- students are then to combine these thoughts two at a time by employing sentence parts such as pronouns, conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions, such as:
- "Since I like dogs, I have one."
- "My dog's name is Dudu, and she is fun to play with"
- then combine those sentences/ ideas into a single, complex sentence:
- Since I like dogs, I have one named Dudu who is fun to play with"
- such as,
- students are to write a series of three or four simple statements of fact.
- Language and the law:
- Create courtroom scenario in which precision or imprecision in words, syntax, and grammar would change the outcome of the case
- such as the classic example of leading a witness, "Did you see the glass?" (as opposed to, "Did you see any glass?")
- Legal Writing Teaching Assistant: The Law Student's Guide to Good Writing (kentlaw.edu) from Chicago-Kent College of Law, by Prof. Marc Grinker
- Prof. Grinker reviews grammar and writing from a legal perspective
- offers examples of the need for precision in language and downfalls of poor usage and incorrect grammar
Conjunction[edit | edit source]
- conjunctions conjoin, combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses)
conjunctions that combine words =[edit | edit source]
- coordinators
- coordinate or combine individual words or phrases:
- as in:
- apples and oranges are similar and distinct fruits
- I only like apples or oranges that are ripe
- as in:
- coordinate or combine individual words or phrases:
- correlative conjunction
- creates a combination or contrast of actions or ideas:
- and, or, neither, nor, etc.
conjunctions that combine sentence parts[edit | edit source]
- coordinating conjunction
- subordinating conjunction (SWABI)
conjunctions that coordinate or conjoin ideas[edit | edit source]
- conjunctive adverb
- see
- Parts of speech#Conjunction for more on conjunctions
Introductory clauses & phrases[edit | edit source]
introductory clause[edit | edit source]
- provides information or context to set up a dominant clause
- = a dependent clause (does not stand as a complete sentence)
- usually begin with a subordinating conjunction
- ex. "If you want to do well on the test, use the study guide"
introductory phrase[edit | edit source]
- a phrase that introduces an independent clause
- usually a prepositional phrase or a participial phrase
- "On Thursdays, I get out." (prepositional phrase)
- "Feeling hungry, I bought some fries" (participial phrase)
- usually a prepositional phrase or a participial phrase
Modifiers[edit | edit source]
- modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence
- modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader
- types of modifiers
- adjectives
- prepositions
- prepositional phrases
- adverbs
- verbs as modifiers
- participle phrase
- other
- adjective clause
- infinitive phrase
- adverbial clause
- absolute phrase
- Nouns as modifiers
intensifiers[edit | edit source]
- enhance or strengthen the meaning of a word
- (opposite of qualifiers which limit the meaning of a word)
- intensifiers are adverbs (which modify verbs and adjectives), such as "he ran very fast" or "he was very late"
- intensifiers can also act as adjectives in order to intensify an noun,
- as in "a total lie"
- types of intensifiers:
- positive intensifiers:
- very, extremely, absolutely, greatly, totally, highly, particularly, seriously, etc.
- negative intensifiers:
- never, at all, dangerously, never, etc.
- intensifiers that can be both positive or negative:
- awfully, completely
- positive intensifiers:
Sources for modifiers, qualifiers & intensifiers
- Modifiers (Walden.edu)]
- Modifiers Intensifiers, Qualifiers (My English Teacher)]
- [Intensifiers (Britishcouncil.org)]
- [Intensifier (Grammar-Monster.com)]
- for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)
qualifiers[edit | edit source]
- qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word
- qualifiers can be adverbs or determiners
- types of qualifiers:
- adverbs: always, frequently sometimes, usually,
- determiners: few, many, some,
modifier errors: dangling modifiers[edit | edit source]
- a modifier that has no word or phrase to modify
- i.e., it stands by itself, which is inherently illogical since a modifier must have something to modify
- usually, dangling modifiers occur with participial phrases (using the -ing present participle) or prepositional phrases
- dangling modifiers frequently mistake the target of the modification, such as modifying one thing, then discussing another
- examples:
- wrong: While playing around, it was late
- correct: While playing around, I noticed it was late"
- wrong: Driving to school, I forgot my homework
- correct: Driving to school, I realized I forgot my homework
modifier errors: misplaced modifiers[edit | edit source]
- a modifier that is next to or seemingly modifies the word or phrase
- examples.
- wrong: The student failed the test in the back of the class
- correct: The student in the back of the class failed the test
- wrong: The teacher gave a grade to the student that was really good
- correct: The teacher gave a really good grade to the student
- wrong: Jamie chased the cat in his pajamas
- correct: In her pajamas, Jamie chased the cat
- wrong: The student failed the test in the back of the class
modifier errors: pre and post adverbs[edit | edit source]
- modifier placement can change the meaning of a sentence:
- example:
- The student almost failed every test
- v. The student failed almost every test
- here the modifier "almost" is an adverb
- The mechanic only works on trucks on Tuesdays
- = on Tuesdays the mechanic works on trucks and nothing else
- v. The mechanic works on trucks only on Tuesdays
- = it is only on Tuesdays that the mechanic will work on trucks (but might also work on cars, as well)
Sentence diagramming[edit | edit source]
![The diagrammed sentence is build around the core subject-verb](/w/images/thumb/7/7e/Purported-purpose-of-punctuation-diagram.jpg/450px-Purported-purpose-of-punctuation-diagram.jpg)
- diagraming sentences means identifying word and sentence parts
- and arranging them according to their relationship to the main clause/s of the sentence
- sentence diagrams help students to understand the grammatical mechanics of a sentence
- while not taught in schools, sentence diagramming can be empowering
- see Parts of Speech
- here for a diagrammed sentence showing noun phrases:
vocabulary & definitions[edit | edit source]
Attributive[edit | edit source]
Appositive[edit | edit source]
Clause[edit | edit source]
Colloquial[edit | edit source]
Denotation and Connotation[edit | edit source]
- denotation = literal meaning of a word
- connotation = associations wit words
- generally positive or negative associations
Idiom/ Idiomatic[edit | edit source]
- grammatical idiom
- words or phrases that are used simply because they are used
- = don't have specific rules
- note: prepositions are not idiomatic
- idiom as sayings or expressions
- idioms are common sayings that express an idea figuratively
- but if taken literally are nonsensical
- ex.
- "Don't beat around the bush"
- "Chip off the old block"
- "Got the extra mile"
- idioms are common sayings that express an idea figuratively