SAT Digital Reading and Writing Test quick start guide

Quick start guide for punctuation & grammar rules for the new 2024 digital format SAT Test

• see SAT Writing section techniques, strategies & approaches for more detailed instructions (related to the pre-2024 paper test)

Welcome to the Quick Start guide for the digital SAT. This entry covers all the Reading/Writing skills measured by the SAT test and equips students with the tools to build those skills. 

The SAT Reading/Writing is an evidence-based exam, so students are to develop the most effective and efficient approaches to the texts and questions about them. Although language is not as rules-based as mathematics, in that reading comprehension is a holistic skill, there are specific rules that students can master in order to approach the test using those rules.

These rules include identification of paragraph and sentence construction, pronouns, modifiers, subject-verb matching, prepositional phrases, etc. -- and punctuation. You will find the punctuation rules at the bottom of this article entry, as punctuation follows and does not precede those other rules. Nevertheless, students should MEMORIZE the punctuation rules, just as they would a math formula, and then apply the other skills towards understanding their use.

Abbreviations

• IC = independent clause
• DC = dependent clause
• RC = relative clause
• Phr = phrase
• S= subject (noun)
• V = verb
• O = object (noun)

Also:

• CC = coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
• SC = subordinating conjunction (creates DC)
• RP = relative pronoun (creates a relative clause

Overview

• The new Digital SAT has four parts, or "modules".
  • the first two are "Reading and Writing"

Instructions

• From the SAT Test, instructions for Modules 1 and 2 state:

The questions in this section address a number of important reading and writing skills.

Skills

• Vocabulary
  • contextual identification, especially for parts of speech and word "type" or its appropriate associations
  • word definition anticipation
• Reading comprehension, including
  • paragraph construction (esp. topic and concluding sentences)
  • contextual purpose of a sentence
  • main point
  • transition words
  • author perspective point of view
  • using evidence
• Logic & Reasoning, including
  • inverted or backwards thinking (especially with the word "not" to invert an idea)
  • identifying patterns, especially in charts
  • inference from given evidence

• Grammar & punctuation, including
  • verb tense
  • clauses and phrases, especially participle phrases
  • pronouns
  • modifiers, especially determiners (such, this, one, some, any, etc.)
  • punctuation of phrases, dependent clauses and independent clauses
• Usage
  • parallelism (maintaining "parallel" sentence and word forms)
  • concise and precise word choice and sentence construction
    • i.e. avoiding redundancy, wordiness and passive voice

Question Attack

A core test-taking skill is to read instructions and answer questions within the constraints of the question

• read instructions first!
• identify information in the question
• identify what the question is measuring
• identify any question parts or steps
  • if the question has two parts, the correct answer must answer both of them
  • (frequently, wrong answers will answer correctly only one part of the question, or answer one part correctly and the other part incorrectly)

Elimination

• On any multiple-choice question, the test-taker is presented with
  • a set of wrong answers designed to fool the test taker
  • a single correct answer similarly designed to fool the test-taker.
• thereby, the test-taker must employ an elimination strategy that approaches every possible answer with distrust.

The correct answer is not the best answer: it is the only answer that has no error

• wrong answers are designed to fool the student into making an incorrect association with the evidence
• correct answers are designed to hide the correct association with the evidence

Eliminate for errors, do not select for correctness

• make every possible answer account for itself
• test it against the evedience
• do not infer what is not there

Inference

• is... given certain evidence we can conlude that...
• is not ... given certain evidence we can insert new evidence

Elimination types

Evidence	states	suggests	concludes
Inference	suggests	infers	draws
Degree	error of specificity	error of generality

Reading Strategies quick start guide

Identify sentence core Subject-Verb match

• every sentence has a Subject and Verb that establish the basis of the sentence's Independent Clause (s)
  • the subject indicates the perspective or "person" of the sentence
  • the verb creates a predicate which expresses the "idea" of the sentence
    • i.e., what the subject "is" or "does"
• the verb "matches" the subject in terms of tense and "person"
  • ie. It goes v They go
• since it matches to a subject the verb is "finite"
  • "finite verbs" have a subject
  • "finite verbs" create clauses (i.e., sentence parts that contain a Subject-Verb

• by identifying the core Subject-Verb the student will identify the basic perspective and idea of the sentence
  • all other sentence parts add information to the Subject-Verb/Predicate core

Get rid of the noise"

• identify the sentence core
• then read through complicated language and unfamiliar words by "chunking" them into parts and identifying what they do to the subject-verb
• skip unfamiliar words
  • or replace them with "something"
  • while ignoring unnecessary modifiers, focus on nouns
  • unnecessary or redundant modifiers may include,
    • adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses (start with "which", "that", "who")
• convert participle phrases (non-finite verbs that start with "-ing" and do not have a subject) into a separate sentence

Example:

"Studying marsupials in Western Australia during a heavy drought, the field researchers incorrectly assumed aberrant behaviors for abiding characteristics."

1. identify sentence core: "researchers [incorrectly] assumed"
2. key nouns: "drought", "researchers", "behaviors", "characteristics"
3. convert and simplify participle phrase: "Researchers studied marsupials during a drought."

Gives us:

Researchers studied marsupials during a drought. The field researchers incorrectly assumed aberrant [not normal??] behaviors for abiding [normal??] characteristics."

Identify Transition Words

• Transition words move ideas
• Authors use transition words for emphasis, contrast, and example
• As transition words are "conjunctive adverbs," they combine the predicates, or "ideas" of two or more sentences or sentence parts
• look for the word "but", especially

Identify "dependent clauses" and participle phrases

• dependent clauses are modifiers
• they do not form the core of a sentence, but they add to or limit the sentence meaning
• pay special attention to subordinating conjunctions which can change the meaning of a clause
  • Since, while, until, when, unless, etc.
  • these words qualify the meaning of a sentence

Identify Pronoun References

• pronouns refer to another noun or idea, usually previously stated
• in order to maintain context and focus, while reading, replace the pronoun with that noun or idea
• if a noun has "the," "this or" that" before it, then identify when/where that noun was previously discussed or defined
  • "the", "this," and "that" indicate a specific or "definite" reference to something previously stated
  • "a/an", "any," "some, " etc. indicate general or introductory reference (not previously stated)

Identify Passage Perspective

• is the text speaking for the author or from another point of view?
• is the text explaining another point of view
• is the text using a "rhetorical question" to set up a rebuttal to a possible criticism?
• do characters or experiments in the text refer to other characters or experiments?
• what is the overall "perspective" of the piece?

Grammar quick start guide

Grammar is a set of rules guiding use of words and combinations of words.

• the most important rule to follow in grammar is that a sentence must contain a finite verb and make a complete thought
• everything else in a sentence is additional information

Verbs quick start guide

• Students are frequently taught that verbs are "action words"
• However; the definition is misleading because verbs may indicate an action, but they may also indicate a state, condition, existence or occurrence
  • and not a clear "action"
• The best way to think of a verb is that it is the core of a "predicate" and establishes the "idea" of the sentence (see "predicate")

Verb definition

• indicates an action, state, condition, existence or occurrence
• the dictionary definition of "verb" is

noun. a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence.

• Verb examples:

Common verbs (present tense forms)

Present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
do, does	am doing, is doing, are doing	have done, has done
am, is, are	am being, is being, are being	have been, has been
go, goes	am going, is going, are going	have gone, has gone
think, thinks	am thinking, is thinking, are thinking	have thought, has thought
get, gets	am getting, is getting, are getting	have gotten, has gotten

• Note:
  • "am", "are" "is" are finite verbs (have subjects)
    • which means they are the grammatical equivalent of "action verbs" (kick, play, throw)
      • even though they do not express a direct action
    • they are forms of "to be" and are linking verbs (see below)

Verbs and predicates

• the verb is the basis of the predicate of a sentence
• the predicate = the action and its result/s, modifier/s or object/s
  • the predicate is the "idea" of the sentence ("what is or does")
  • the "subject" is the "person" or "perspective" of a sentence ("the doer")

The elephant	sprayed the people at the zoo
subject = the "person" or "point of view" (i.e., "the doer")	predicate = the "idea" of the sentence (i.e., what is or happens)

Finite vs. Non-Finite Verb

BIG IDEA: for the SAT, identify if a verb is finite or non-finite

Finite Verb

• has a subject
• finite verbs form the core of a sentence or clause
• "is" and "are" are finite verbs
  • = conjugation of the verb "to be", which is a linking verb
  • IDENTIFY them in a sentence, then match them to their subject
• dependent clauses have finite verbs, so identify the subject-verb match in a dependent clause in order not to confuse it with the subject-verb match of the main or independent clause
  • ex. The thing I like most about her is her sunny attitude
    • S-V of main clause = Thing + is
    • S-V of relative clause = I + like

Non-finite verb

• does not have a subject
• non-finite verbs act as a noun (gerund), adjective (past or present participle) or infinitive ("to" form of a verb)
  • this worksheet: Non-Finite Verbs and the "Verbiness of gerunds, participles and infinitives"
• for the SAT, the most important non-finite verb is the present participle adjective
  • = the -ing form of a non-finite verb acting as an adjective
    • note that non-finite verbs acting as nouns, called gerunds, are also in the -ing form of the verb
  • present participle adjectives are frequently used to create a "participle phrase," which adds information to another part of the sentence, usually the independent clause:
    • ex. Driving carefully, she made it home safely in the storm
      • = "She drove carefully in the storm. She made it home safely."
        • we can combine those two sentences into a more compact sentence by using the non-finite verb "driving"
    • ex. The teacher popped a quiz on the students, testing their readiness.
    • note that participle phrases are attached to an independent clause by a comma and not a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
  • -ing participles that act as nouns are called "gerunds"
    • ex. Studying is essential for learning
      • "studying" is the subject (noun) and "learning" is the object (noun) of the preposition, "for"
    • the SAT will not often test for gerunds as a verb selection, but some questions will ask the student to match another verb to the gerund, which is usually singular
• infinitives can act as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs
  • for the SAT, infinitives frequently serve to indicate purpose, as in
    • The study incorporated several constants [to establish] which variables were present
      • note that "to establish" is an adjective that modifies the object "constants" (
  • infinitives can also create subject phrases
    • To explore further than ever before is the goal of the space mission
      • subject = "to explore" (infinitive acting as a noun) and verb "is" (= a finite, linking verb)

examples:

• participle phrase: QID 50445680, 898f182c, 6e5bf3a8, 61160f0a,
• infinitive: QID 50445680, 4a90a978, bd11fe93
• gerund subject-verb match: QID c91ef0f0
• non-finite verb where a finite verb is required: QID 6e5bf3a8, 7c48a6dd

Linking verb

• a finite verb (has a subject) that "links" a noun or adjective (the complement) to the subject
• ex. She is a doctor
  • "she" = subject
  • "is" = linking verb
• linking verbs do not have objects
  • instead they have "subject complements"
  • in the sentence, She is a doctor
    • "doctor" = subject complement noun
    • "doctor" is not the object of the verb "is"
    • instead, the verb "is" links the complement noun "doctor" to the subject "she"
  • in the sentence, The patient feels sick
    • "sick" = subject complement adjective
    • "sick" is an adjective so it cannot be an object (which is a noun)
    • so, the verb "feels" links the complement adjective "sick" to the subject "patient"
• for the SAT, note that:
  • linking verbs have subjects
    • thus "is" and "are" are finite verbs with matching subjects
      • (i.e., subject-verb agreement: "it is" v. "they are")
  • linking verbs do not have objects
    • instead, they have "complements" that are "linked" to the subject by the verb
  • students should always recognize the linking verb "to be" (am/is/are) as a finite verb that has a subject

Verb tense, conjugation and subject-verb matching quick start guide

• "conjugation" means "to inflect" a verb according to the "person" of its subject
  • "inflection" = word ending changes
    • i.e., "go" >> "going", or "go" >> "goes"
  • "person" = the "voice" or "perspective" of the subject of a sentence
    • i.e., "I" = first person singular; "we" = first person plural, etc.

Person

Verbs: "person" of the subject

Person	Singular	Plural
First person	I	we
Second person	you	you (all)
Third person	he / she / it	they
	singular noun (ex. the lion roars)	plural noun (ex. the lions roar)

Conjugation

• matches subject and verb
  • or, the verb-ending matches the person of the subject

Conjugation: "to be"

	singular	plural
First person	I am	We are
Second person	You are	You (all) are
Third person	He / She / It is	They are

the SAT test will only ask students to select between third person singular ("it") and third person plural ("they")

Conjugation: "to go"

	singular	plural
First person	I go	We go
Second person	You go	You (all) go
Third person	He / She / It goes	They go

Tense

• tense = verb forms that indicate time (when)
  • past, present, future
  • and sub-categories of them

"Perfect" tenses

• we use the "perfect tense" to describe a "state" or condition of being or having
  • in either the past, present or future
• past perfect uses the auxiliary verb, had
  • I had been there = in the past that was my state, i.e. I used to be there but no longer am
• present perfect uses the auxiliary verbs has & have
  • They have been there = they have been and still are in the state of having been there, i.e. They were there and they still were there
• future perfect uses the auxiliary verbs, will have
  • They will have been there = not now, but in the future they will be in the state of being there, i.e. They're not there yet but will be at some point in the future

• HAS and HAVE finite verb forms are PRESENT TENSE

Present Tense: third person singular and plural

	Simple present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
Singular	It works	It is working	It has worked
	It interacts	It is interacting	It has interacted
	It does	It is doing	It has done*
Plural	They work	They are working	They have worked
	They interact	They are interacting	They have interacted
	They do	They are doing	They have done.

• HAD finite verb forms are PAST TENSE

Past Tense: third person singular and plural

	Simple present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
Singular	It worked	It was working	It had worked
	It interacted	It was interacting	It had interacted
	It did*	It was doing	It had done*
Plural	They worked	They were working	They had worked
	They interacted	They were interacting	They had interacted
	They did*	They were doing	They had done.*

• note that HAVE can also create a "perfect participle" that is non-finite (does not have a subject)
  • Having practiced hard, the team won the championship
  • "having practiced" = perfect participle
    • and creates the participle phrase, "having practiced hard"
• for use on the digital SAT, see Practice Test 2, Module 2, question 18:

18 For thousands of years, people in the Americas 
______ the bottle gourd, a large bitter fruit with a 
thick rind, to make bottles, other types of containers, 
and even musical instruments.

A) to use 
B) have used 
C) having used 
D) using

• We see that the sentence needs a finite verb (a sentence must have a finite verb)
• We can identify "people as the subject" and ______ as the finite verb to match the subject
  • (the objects of the __(missing)___ finite verb is "bottles" "containers" and instruments")

• Elimination:
  • A) is incorrect bc it is a non-finite infinitive verb and thereby does not match the subject
    • people to use bottles << does not create a subject-verb match
  • B) is correct bc it is a present perfect verb that matches the subject "people"
    • people have used bottles << creates a subject-verb match
  • C) is incorrect bc it is a non-finite perfect participle verb and thereby does not match the subject
    • people having used << does not create a subject-verb match
  • D) is incorrect bc it is a non-finite present participle verb that does not match the subject "people"
    • people using the bottle gourd << does not create a subject-verb match

Sentence quick start guide

• A sentence is a grammatically correct, complete thought.
• A sentence must:
  • contain a subject and verb
    • i.e. a finite verb
  • form a complete thought
• types of sentences:
  • a simple sentence consists of a single independent clause
    • ex. I ate dinner.
      • = a single, independent clause
  • a compound sentence has two or more independent clauses (see below)
    • ex. I ate dinner, but I am still hungry.
      • = two independent clauses
  • a complex sentence has an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
    • and/or phrases, especially participle phrases (see below)
    • ex. Although I ate dinner, I am still hungry
      • = dependent clause + independent clause
    • ex. Even after eating dinner, I am still hungry.
      • = participle phrase + independent clause

Sentence core

• the "core" of a sentence is its subject-verb combination
• for the SAT, identify the "sentence core" in order to
  • comprehend the sentence
  • identify modifying, or non-essential, parts
  • correctly answer subject-verb match questions

Sentence core parts: subject & predicate

• we can divide a sentence into two core parts:
  • SUBJECT and PREDICATE
• SUBJECT = the perspective of the sentence (i.e. the "doer")

• PREDICATE = the action or idea of the sentence

SUBJECT the doer or perspective	PREDICATE the action or idea
dog	bites
mailman	runs

Additional sentence parts: modifiers & complements

• additional information may be added using "modifiers" and "complements"

• modifiers add important information but are not essential to a grammatically complete sentence
  • modifiers include:

MODIFIERS

Part of Speech	Examples	Purpose
adjective	big, blue, round, fast	describe or add information to a noun
	The blue dog ate a round balloon
adverb	fast, heartily, slowly	describe or add information to a verb, adjective or adverb
	They drove fast but got lost slowly
article	a, an, the	qualify a noun as "indefinite" (a, an) or definite (the)
	The cowboy rode a horse
determiner	any, two, some, those	qualifies or "determines" something about a noun
	Offer some people two choices and they will take either one.
preposition	at, of, on, to	relate a noun (the object of the preposition) to another noun or verb
nouns as modifiers
appositive noun	, a farmer,	a noun that parenthetically describes another noun
	The school implemented a new policy, a disaster, that nobody liked.
attributive noun:	"baseball game"	a noun that acts as an adjective by adding information to another noun
	The bank workers celebrated employee day at the baseball park

• complements add information to the subject or verb

SUBJECT the doer or perspective			PREDICATE the action or idea
the	scared	mailman	runs	from	the	mean	dog
sentence core:
		subject	verb
modifiers and complements:
article	adjective			preposition	article	adjective	object complement of the preposition

Clause quick start guide

• a clause has a finite verb
  • i.e. it consists of a subject + verb

Independent clause (IC)

• has a finite verb
• makes a complete thought
  • i.e., if by itself it would make a (simple) sentence

Dependent clause (DC)

• has a finite verb
• does not make a complete thought
  • i.e. by itself it would not make a sentence
• dependent clauses add information to an independent clause

• dependent clauses are formed by subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns

Subordinate clause

• "subordinate" = "below" or "under"
• it is subordinate to the IC
• it is "subordinated" by a "subordinating conjunction":

Subordinate clause (DC)				Independent clause (IC)
Since	the snow	fell	all night	school	canceled
subordinating conjunction	subject	verb	prepositional phrase	subject	verb
The DC could not be a sentence by itself:				The IC could be a sentence by itself:
Since the snow fell all night.				School canceled.

Relative clause (also called "adjective clause")

• adds modifying information
• is a dependent clause
• introduced by the relative pronouns that, which, who, whose

Independent clause (IC)			Relative clause (DC)
The snow	fell	all night	which	meant	no school.
subject	verb	prepositional phrase	subject (relative pronoun)	verb	object phrase
The IC could be a sentence by itself:			The DC could not be a sentence by itself:
The snow fell all night.			Which meant no school.

• note: if we used the wording, "The snow fell all night, which meant school canceled," we would then have the clause "school canceled" (subject-verb) as a dependent (noun) clause within the first dependent (relative) clause:
  • i.e. The snow fell all night, which meant school canceled
    • relative clause
    • noun clause
  • the dependent marker "that" is assumed (thus can be omitted):
    • The snow fell all night, which meant that school canceled
  • the SAT will not measure students directly on noun clauses, although sentences may include them
• for more on noun clauses, see SAT Writing section:#noun clause or Grammar: Clause#noun clause

Relative clause within an IC:

• Relative clauses may come in between an independent clause's subject and predicate

• the SAT frequently measures this sentence form:
  • in order to confuse students about subject-verb matching
  • in order to confuse students about punctuation

• ex.:

The study that used more samples shows promise.

Independent Clause (IC)
The study		shows		promise
Subject		Verb		Object
Relative Clause (DC)
	that	used	more samples
	subject (relative pronoun)	verb	object phrase

• Note: on this sentence, the SAT might try to confuse the student with a mismatch of the singular subject "study" and singular verb "shows"
  • by selecting the plural object of the relative clause "samples" and incorrectly matching it to the plural verb "show"
  • the test might also try to confuse students over the tense of the past-tense "used" and present-tense "shows"

• Here's another depiction of a relative clause that fits between the subject and verb of an independent clause:
• ex., for the sentence
  • The dog that barks has no bite
    • IC subject-verb = "dog has"
    • DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "that barks"

• ex., for the sentence
  • • The friend that I made in France last year will visit this summer
      • IC subject-verb = "friend will visit"
      • DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "I made"
      • DC relative pronoun = "that"
        • here, the relative pronoun "that" is acting as a "conjunction" or "dependent marker"
          • as it marks or sets up the the relative clause

BIG IDEAS for relative clauses

• with the relative pronoun "that" no punctuation is used
  • ("that" may be preceded or followed by a parenthetical element that uses parentheses, commas or dashes)
  • the SAT will frequently ask to place a semicolon or colon after "that" -- this is incorrect
• if coming in between the subject and verb, the relative pronoun "which" may or may not be separated by commas
  • if "that" can be substituted, "which" does not need a comma
  • if "that" can not be substituted, "which" uses a comma
• do not confuse the subject-verb of the relative clause with the subject-verb of the independent clause (IC)

Phrase (Phr) quick start guide

• a phrase is two or more words that do not contain a finite verb
  • i.e., any two words that are not a subject + verb
• phrases add information
• and build up ideas, provide context, information, qualify, etc.
  • especially to add information to either a subject or predicate

SUBJECT		PREDICATE
On Tuesdays	my friend and I	play	competitive tennis	at the local club
prepositional phrase	subject phrase	verb	object phrase	prepositional phrase

Preposition / Prepositional Phrase quick start guide

• prepositions
  • include about, by, from, near, of, on , etc.
• prepositions create a relationship between nouns
  • the nouns or other words that follow the preposition are called a "prepositional phrase" ("about something I once knew")
• prepositional phrases establish a relationship with a noun or as part of a subject-verb clause:
  • ex. adding information to a noun (like an adjective):
    • The ideas of the professor are hardly novel.
    • The keys on the desk are just sitting there.
    • The path up the hill is steep
  • ex. adding information to a subject noun (like a subject complement adjective):
    • The keys are on the desk
    • Those tired ideas are from that professor
    • The path goes up the hill
  • ex. adding information to a verb (like an adverb):
    • The professor was educated at Yale.
    • I left the keys on the desk
    • He ran up the hill

• the noun in prepositional phrases are NEVER the subject of a sentence

• • i.e., for subject-verb matching, the preposition/ prepositional phrase is NOT the subject
    • ex. Books about sailing are fun and note Books about sailing is fun
      • "about" = a preposition, so "sailing" is not the subject and the verb is therefore matched to the plural "books"

• Strategies:
  • identify prepositional phrases
    • identify the noun in the prepositional phrase
  • identify the noun or verb that the preposition modifies
  • recognize that prepositional phrases are modifiers that add information to a sentence core but are not the core of the sentence

• the SAT will try to confuse students between the subject of a clause and the object of a preposition
  • note that the object of a preposition is never the subject of a clause
  • example from April 2018 paper test Writing question 20 (slightly modified here):

20. Finally, traditional methods of storage 
________ heat to compress the air, which can 
lower the energy efficiency of the process.

A) requires
B) had required
C) does require
D) require

• the question is trying to trick the student into thinking that the object of the preposition, "of" is the subject of the sentence:
  • "of storage"
    • whereas, the object of a preposition is never the subject of a sentence!
• thus the elimination:
  • A) requires < incorrect because the subject of the verb is the plural "methods" and not the singular "storage" (which is the object of the preposition)
  • B) had required < incorrect because the sentence is in the present tense ("can lower") and "had required" is past perfect tense
  • C) does require << incorrect because the modal verb "does" is singular (it does require v. they do require) and the subject of the sentence is the plural "methods"
  • D) require << correct because the plural "require" matches the plural subject, "methods"
• Note that a prepositional phrase may come before the verb, while the subject of the verb is after it
  • see Digital SAT Practice Test 3, Module 2, question 24

24. The Progressive Era in the United States witnessed 
the rise of numerous Black women’s clubs, local 
organizations that advocated for racial and gender 
equality. Among the clubs’ leaders ______ Josephine 
St. Pierre Ruffin, founder of the Women’s Era Club 
of Boston. 

A) was
B) were
C) are
D) have been

• the correct answer is A) was because "among the club's leaders" is a prepositional phrase
  • so the plural "leaders" is the object of the preposition and not the subject of the sentence
  • the subject, "Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin" follows the verb, as the sentence is in the passive voice
• the sentence can be seen better by inverting the prepositional phrase and the subject, giving us:

Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, founder of the Women’s Era Club of Boston, was among the clubs’ leaders.

• or, eliminating the parenthetical attributive noun phrase:

Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin was among the clubs’ leaders.

• see SAT Writing section #prepositional phrase for more

Participle phrase quick start guide

• participles are the verb forms of using -ing and -ed
  • these may be finite or non-finite (see "Verbs" guide)
• non-finite participles do not have a subject and may act as nouns ("gerund") or adjectives (present or past participle adjective)

Participle as finite verb	Form	Participle as non-finite verb	Form
I was feeling hungry, so I decided to get a burger	"feeling" = present continuous finite verb (with subject "I")	Feeling hungry, I decided to get a burger	"feeling" = non-finite present participle adjective that describes the IC subject "I"
If you are studying, you will get higher grades.	"are studying" = present continuous finite verb (with subject "you")	Studying yields higher grades	"studying" = gerund (non-finite participle as noun) and acts as the subject of the finite verb "yields"
The train stopped, and people waited impatiently.	"stopped" = past tense finite verb (with the subject "train")	People waited impatiently on the stopped train.	"stopped" = past participle adjective that describes "train"

Participle phrase BIG IDEAS

• participle phrases and gerunds are used to combine multiple thoughts and clauses
• for example:
  • Eighth graders take Algebra. Ninth graders then take Geometry.
    • to "After taking Algebra in eighth grade, ninth graders take Geometry
      • "taking" = non-finite participle noun (gerund)
    • Eight graders taking algebra will take geometry in ninth grade
      • "taking" = present participle adjective that describes what eight graders take
  • note that in both non-finite verb examples, "algebra" and "geometry" are objects of the non-finite verb

Conjunction quick start guide

• conjunctions:
  • combine words, phrases, and clauses

Coordinating conjunction (CC)

• combines ICs (FANBOYS)
  • I was hungry, so I bought a burger

• note: the word however is NOT a coordinating conjunction ("FANBOYS" does not have an "H" !),
  • therefore it must be combined with another CC or a semicolon if combining two ICs
  • "however" is a "conjunctive adverb", or "transition word"

Subordinating conjunction (SC)

• = turns an IC into a DC by requiring additional ideas to complete the thought of the clause
• ex. I was hungry, so I bought a burger = two IC w/ a CC
• whereas, if we use the SC "since"
  • = Since I was hungry, I bought a burger
  • = DC, IC ("Since I was hungry is not a complete thought, therefore it is a DC, or subordinate clause)

• no comma if the dependent clause (DC) or phrase (Ph) is requisite or necessary
  • usually, when the SC follows the IC, there is not a comma
  • the subordinating conjunction becomes a relative conjunction
    • We couldn't play when it rained
  • just as SV or SVO are not separated by punctuation (because they are necessary or required of each other to make sense):
    • some clauses and phrases are requisite or necessary to complete a thought, which means they are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
    • ex. I bought the shoes that were on sale << "that were on sale" is necessary to the idea that "I bought" particular shoes
  • see "Relative clause" below for more on essential and non-essential sentence elements
  • some teachers use the term "SWABIs" for SC (Since, When, After, Because, If)
    • although that list is incomplete

Conjunctive Adverb ("transition words")

• also called "transition words" because they "conjoin" predicates (ideas)
• conjunctive adverbs DO NOT join grammatical sentence parts;
  • instead, they join ideas
• therefore, they DO NOT combine clauses
  • which requires other punctuation or grammatical form (such as coordinating or subordinating conjunctions)
• some teachers call conjunctive adverbs "THAMOs" although that list is incomplete (Though, However, Also, Moreover, Otherwise)

examples:

I love Oreos, however, I know they are bad for me. ✘
IC	IC
'however' (a conjunctive adverb) incorrectly conjoins the ICs
I love to eat Oreos, but I know they are bad for me. ✓
IC	IC
'but' (a coordinating conjunction) correctly conjoins the ICs
I love to eat Oreos; however, I know they are bad for me. ✓
IC	IC
the semicolon correctly conjoins the ICs, and the prefatory 'however' is okay if followed by a comma
I love to eat Oreos, even though I know they are bad for me. ✓
IC	DC
'though' (a subordinating conjunction) correctly conjoins the IC to the DC

• see below for "transition words" (which are conjunctive adverbs)

Transition Word quick start guide

• "Transition words" are "conjunctive adverbs" that compare or relate two or more ideas (predicates) either between or within a sentence.
  • called "conjunctive" because it joins or relates ideas (predicates)
  • called adverb because it modifies predicates (which have a verb as their basis)
• Transition words generally create
  • positive transition (thus, additionally, for example)
  • negative transition (but, nevertheless, alternatively),
  • neutral or chronological transition (next, meanwhile)
• Here for list of Transition word definitions: Transition words translations
• Notes on transition words questions:
  • "however" is a transition word and not a coordinating conjunction (i.e. it does not combine ICs)
  • students should summarize the idea (predicate) of sentences or clauses on either side of the transition word
    • and assess whether the second predicate (idea) supports, negates, or moves on from the first
  • always read several sentences before the transition word for context
  • if the transition word is in the middle of a sentence, it may be transitioning from the prior sentence
    • to check, put the transition word at the beginning of the sentence, and see if it makes sense.
    • ex.

October 2022 QAS, Writing section, question 14:
 
 In the early twentieth century, the Dutch were cycling enthusiasts, not only riding but also manufacturing bicycles in large numbers. As personal income grew in the postwar boom years of the 1950s and 1960s, [ in short ], car ownership rose sharply, and cars began to eclipse bikes in popularity.
 
 A) NO CHANGE
 B) in other words
 C) therefore
 D) however

• note that the transition word falls within the sentence.
  • test if the transition is actually between the two sentences, i.e.

In the early twentieth century, the Dutch were cycling enthusiasts, not only riding but also manufacturing bicycles in large numbers. [ In short ] as personal income grew in the postwar boom years of the 1950s and 1960s, car ownership rose sharply, and cars began to eclipse bikes in popularity.

• At that point, the transition becomes more clear
  • Sentence 1 summary: "Dutch = cycling enthusiasts"
  • Sentence 2 summary: "With more income i 1950s/60s they started buying cars
• therefore we see that Sentence 2 creates a NEGATIVE transition from sentence 1
  • thus D) however is the correct answer

Punctuation quick start guide

Period .

periods separate sentences periods do ONE thing =

1. separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences (note: a sentence contains a finitve verb and makes a complete thought)

What PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:

• periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
  • a sentence has a finite verb (subject + verb) and makes a complete thought

elimination:

• if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, the period is wrong
  • i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense

• if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
• note that "interjection" (a quick remark or interruption) or "imperative" (a command) VERBS contain an implied SUBJECT
  • so they can create a complete sentence or independent clause:
  • ex.
    • "Go to the store." = "[you] Go to the store."
    • "Stop!" = "[you} Stop!"
  • for the SAT the imperative may come in the form of a command to the reader, such as:
    • "Take this idea, for example."
      • = "[you] Take this idea, for example." << as a sentence or independent clause

practice questions: 267a13e2, 886dc9f9, aab74a3b, ce81d0b7 (SC),

semicolon ;

semicolons combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them

• as opposed to periods, which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts
• or a comma + CC, which combines ICs as equally important thoughts

semicolons do TWO things:

1. combine ICs (independent clauses)

• note that semicolons can -- but rarely: separate a list of IC's:
  • as in "IC; IC; IC; IC."

2. act as a "super comma"

• a semicolon may also be used -- uncommonly -- as a "super comma" in order to emphasize separate elements in a list of common examples, usually following a colon
• identify a colon working as a "super comma" by identiying other semicolons in the sentence
  • ex. Years later, the experiment had unexpected results: yielding new antibiotic drugs; uncovering prior laboratory mistakes; identifying new microorganisms.

What SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

semicolons:

1. combine two ICs

• School is boring; I should go anyway = IC; IC

• can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)
  • School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway = "IC; IC; IC
• elimination:
  • must have IC or complete sentences & thoughts on both sides of the semicolon
    • i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect
  • if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong

2. semicolon as a "super comma"

• the super comma creates a list of words, phrases or clauses, but does not require a finite verb

• as in, IC: this; that; the other thing.
  • ex. "On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"
  • the "super comma" does not have to follow a colon, so we could write:
    • On our trip, we will visit tons of places, including in Africa, Egypt & Morocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey.
    • or We defeated the enemy at the gates; rescued the homeland; and saved the children.2.
  • on the SAT it will frequently but not always follow a colon

• *the "super comma" is rarely used in practice and on the SAT test (as on the May SAT QAS 2022 paper test Writing section question no. 35):

 35. Critics lauded the film’s predominantly Black 
[ cast ] its director, Ryan Coogler; its Kendrick
Lamar-produced soundtrack ; and its Afrofuturist aesthetic. 
A) NO CHANGE
B) cast: 
C) cast,
D) cast;

elimination:

• A) NO CHANGE is incorrect because it creates a run-on sentence between the IC ("critics lauded") and the examples that follow
• B) cast: is correct because the colon is properly preceded by an IC and the colon sets up the the list that follows, which is separated by semicolons acting as "super commas"
• C) cast, is incorrect because the comma does not set up the subsequent list
• D) cast; is incorrect because the list that follows would not be parallel with the initial IC
  • (it would incorrectly create "IC; phrase; phrase; phrase", and IC and phrases are not conjoined by a semicolon)

practice questions:

• combine ICs: QID 89fbc3eb
• semicolons & conjunctive adverbs: QID 1ee4485c, be37d4ae, 78b88c04
• elimination by semicolon and period or CC: QID ac5536c1, 8f6d6ae, 62120607

• super comma: QID aaa1907f, be37d4ae, aaa1907f, db24ecc9
  • see QID a06c434 for a vocabulary question that employs a sentence using a "super comma"

Comma ,

commas create a pause

• we use commas to distinguish -- but not separate -- grammatical parts or ideas
  • i.e., create a pause between them ("let the reader breathe")
• commas combine those distinct sentence parts
  • as opposed to periods, semicolon, colons, dashes, which separate sentence parts.

commas do FIVE things:

commas:

1. combine IC, DC, or DC, IC
   • or IC, Phr or Phr, IC
     • He ate fast, which upset his stomach = IC, DC
     • After eating too fast, his stomach was upset = Phr, IC
       • = prepositional phrase, independent clause
     • Eating too fast, he upset his stomach = Phr, IC
       • = participle phrase* + IC
2. combine ICs
   • but only with a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC
   • ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC"
     • "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC
     • "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC
3. act parenthetically
   • ", .... ," (like these parentheses) -- or these dashes --
   • The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative = S, .... , V
     • note that the subject "movie" is separated from its verb "was" by the parenthetical clause ("which was..")
     • so we see that parenthetical elements are agrammatical ("not grammatical") in that they do not impact the surrounding grammatical functions ("S, parenthetical element, V" = "S V")
4. separate items in a list (subjects, verbs, objects)
   • ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O
     • Janie, Sean, and Amber went hiking, fishing, and swimming in Maine.
   • note that lists are combined using coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) and not by commas!
   • that is, the commas separate the elements of the list, but they are
     • i.e., given: The flowers are red, blue, and purple.
       • the commas are separating the adjectives that are combined by the coordinating conjunction (CC) "and"
       • the commas separate the words, but it is the CC that combines them
     • note that semicolons may be used as "super comma" for lists (see semicolon entry below)
   • separate multiple adjectives that are modifying the same noun
     • The big, red balloon
       • the commas function to indicate that the adjectives are modifying the noun independently
         • big red balloon = the "red balloon" is "big
         • big, red balloon = the "balloon" is both "red" and "big"
5. introduce a direct quotation
   • ex. The judge declared, "Guilty!"

What COMMAS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

• commas can create a pause between sentence parts
  • so a phrase and a clause can be combined/separated by a comma
    • On Tuesdays, I go to the gym. = Phr, IC
    • Since it is raining, I won't got for a run. = DC, IC
  • or an IC is combined with another IC using a comma, which, along with the CC, creates a separation between the clauses
    • It is raining, and I am wet.
      • note how the comma separates the ICs, while the CC combines them
• commas separate items in a list
  • the list can be a series of adjectives that all modify a noun
• commas DO NOT separate essential or necessary sentence parts; ex:
  • The dog that barks does not bite << no comma since "that barks" is needed to describe "the dog"
  • The cat meows because it wants to be petted. << no comma since "because" is needed to connect the ideas (IC DC)
    • note that the SC "because" does not use a comma here since the two sentence parts are required to make sense
      • if the DC was adding additional and not necessary information, it would use a comma, as in:
        • The cat meows, which means it wants to be petted.
• to answer comma questions, the student should identify the sentence parts and decide if they need a pause between them
  • the SAT will try to confuse the student into using a comma

elimination:

• commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically (see below for examples)
• commas do not separate prepositions from their objects
• commas can NOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
• 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another (called "compound" subjects, verbs, objects)
  • Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy
    • = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb
• commas DO separate modifying participle phrases from the IC
  • ex. The boy ran into the kitchen, thinking there was a piece of cake left over.
    • < without the comma it is a run-on sentence

practice questions:

• particle phrases: QID ID: 8f6d6ae6

Colon :

• distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC

colons do ONE thing:

1. extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC
   • i.e., a colon MUST be preceded by an IC
   • i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s
     • The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"
       • = IC: list
   • just about any grammatical form can follow a colon, including
     • an IC, phrase, exclamation, multiple ICs with semicolons or coordinating conjunctions
     • a direct quotation (if that quotation is a complete sentence and if the colon is preceded by an IC
     • exceptions are that colons are not followed by:
       • another colon
       • a dependent clause that modifies the independent clause prior to the colon

• colons DO NOT:
  • follow a dependent clause
  • interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) or connected elements in a sentence
    • ex., "I went to the store: because I needed some supplies"
      • the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..."
    • or "She knew: that it was the right thing to do"
      • the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates
    • or "They have two ideas: which are both innovative"
      • "which" creates a DC that modifies the IC prior to the colon, so it cannot be separated from that IC by a colon
        • (a comma separating the IC and DC is okay)
  • have multiple colons in a sentence

What COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

colons:

1. extend or provide examples following an IC

• what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)
  • except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect)
  • or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)
  • colons are usually followed by a list or an example
  • a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:
    • The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!" = IC: IC
• elimination:
  • if NOT preceded by an IC, eliminate the colon
  • if another possible answer is a dash that is acting like a colon, then both cannot be correct, so eliminate the colon
    • but do not eliminate the dash yet, because it does two things, 1) act like a colon; 2) act like parentheses)

Dash --

• separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon

dashes do TWO things:

1. act like a colon
2. act like parentheses (...) = -...-

What DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

dashes:

1. act like a colon
   • ex. She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil
     • = IC separated from a list by a dash (as would a colon)
   • the dash is often used for emphasis (as opposed to a colon, which adds information)
2. act like parentheses (...) = -...-
   • The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive

• elimination:
  • if the dash is acting like a colon, and there is not an IC preceding it, eliminate
    • if another possible answer is a colon, then the dash is not acting like a colon, since both cannot be correct
  • if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)

Parentheses ( )

• parentheses create agrammatical sentence elements
  • i.e., the ( ) does not change the grammar or punctuation of the sentence
  • a parenthesis may be inserted anywhere in a sentence
• note: the parenthetical element usually explains or gives an example for a word or idea that it follows
  • Joey (a growing young man) is always hungry
  • Joey is always (I mean always!) hungry
  • Joey is always hungry (and voraciously hungry)

• note: dashes and commas can create parenthetical elements

parentheses do ONE thing:

1. add information between two parentheses ( ... )

What PARENTHESES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

• if the parenthecal element does not explain the word or idea it follows, it or the word choice is likely incorrect
• parentheses or parenthetical elements may interrupt essential elements
  • a subject and verb, or a verb and object, are never separated by punctuation
    • except a parentheses or parenthetical element may come in between them
    • all of these are correct:
      • Five monkeys (dressed up like clowns) juggled bananas (< parentheses)
      • Five monkeys, dressed like clowns, juggled bananas (< parenthetical commas)
      • Five monkeys dressed up like clowns juggled bananas (< no punctuation)
    • note that if we move the parenthetical phrase, it becomes illogical:
      • Five monkeys juggled (dressed up like clowns) bananas
        • here the parenthetical phrase incorrectly adds information to the verb "juggled"
    • when "that" operates as a "relative pronoun," it is not separated from the clause or word it describes by punctuation, EXCEPT if that punctuation is parenthetical:
      • It was the choice of material (poetry rather than prose) that made it difficult (<< parentheses)
      • It was the choice of material, poetry rather than prose, that made it difficult (<< parenthetical commas)
      • It was the choice of material -- poetry rather than prose -- that made it difficult (<< parenthetical dashes)

Apostrophe '

• for the SAT, an apostrophe is a single hash mark that can do DO THINGS:

1. creates contractions (they're)
2. indicates possession (student's)

[Note: apostrophes can also replace omitted numerals (2001 --> '01) or letters (refrigerator --> 'fridge); these will not be on the SAT test]

contractions

• combine words that are slurred together in informal spoken or written use:
  • it is --> it's
  • they are --> they're
• note: the SAT will never measure use the contraction 's with nouns other than "it" and "they"
  • i.e., it will not test use of the apostrophe for "is" and "are" that are attached to regular nouns
    • ex., something is happening --> something's happening << will not be on the test
    • also, the SAT will not measure use of cannot --> can't

elimination:

• the SAT will try to confuse students with the contractions it's ("it is") and they're ("they are")
  • with the homophonic (sounds the same, spells differently) its and their
    • its = 3rd person singular possessive pronoun
      • i.e. The dog chewed its bone
    • their = 3rd person plural possessive pronoun
      • i.e. Their yard is huge

• test if the contraction is a subject-verb combination by expanding it two words
  • its --> it is
  • they're --> they are

possession

• the possessive form of a noun is indicated with an apostrophe + "s"
  • can be singular: dog's bone = the bone that belongs to the dog
  • or plural: students' backpacks= the backpacks that belong to or are used by students
• rules:
  • only nouns can be possessive
    • note: the possessive noun acts like an adjective (the dog's bone, dog's essentially describes the bone)

• and only nouns can be possessed
  • ex. dog's bone
• if a verb, preposition or adverb follow the possessive noun it is wrong
  • note, hyphenated words do not use possessive form
    • i.e., "the tradition is centuries-old" as opposed to the incorrect "century's old" or "centuries' old"
• an adjective may follow a possessive if that adjective is modifying the possessed noun
  • ex. dog's juicy bone
• possesive personal pronouns do not use apostrophes:
  • my/mine, your/yours, his, hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs

• show possession
  • nouns possess nouns and nouns can only possess nouns (not verbs)

elimination:

• if punctuation or a verb follow the possessor noun, eliminate
  • ex. The students' of the school = incorrect, because a noun cannot possess a preposition ("of")
• test if the possessive noun is actually an indirect object instead
  • switch the possession into a prepositional phrase
  • if it makes sense, then the noun should be possessive
    • ex.
      • The company provides workers' vacations
        • the company cannot provide vacations that belong to workers, i.e. "vacations of the workers"
    • versus
      • The company provides workers vacations
        • = the company provides vacations to the workers ("workers"= indirect object)

Hyphen -

• a hypen does one thing: combine words
  • (a dash is used to combine or set aside sentence parts)
• "hyphenated words" are words that are created by combining two distinct words with a hyphen
  • ex, friendly-looking, first-born, two-year-old, off-campus
  • the hyphenated word acts grammatically as a single word
• the SAT generally does not measure use of hyphens

Punctuation and "restrictive elements" quick start guide

• a "restrictive" element is a sentence part that is not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or other punctuation
• restrictive elements include:
  • subject - verb - object (or subject complement)
    • are not separated from one another by punctuation
      • S V O
        • cannot be separated from one another by punctuation, ex.:
        • SoHo, is fun to say, and to visit << incorrect
        • SoHo is fun to say and to visit << correct
      • but could be separated by a parenthetical phrase or clause:
        • SoHo, a neighborhood in New York, is fun to say and to visit
        • SoHo, which is fun to say, is fun to visit
  • adjectives and adverbs
    • are not separated from the noun or verb they modify by punctuation
      • That is one big, elephant! << incorrect
      • That is one big, elephant! << correct
    • exception: could be a list of coordinate adjectives that are separated by a comma:
      • That is one big, angry elephant!
    • or, could be separated by a parenthetical element:
      • That is one big -- and I mean big! -- elephant
  • possessive nouns
    • are not separated from the noun they possess by punctuation
      • That bird flew right by my friend's, head << incorrect
      • That bird flew right by my friend's head << correct
    • exception: could be part of a list of adjective:
      • That bird flew right by my friend's big, old head
    • note: see rules below for possessives
  • attributive nouns
    • = nouns that act like an adjective ("pool boy" = a boy who tends to pools)
    • attributive nouns are not separated by commas; ex:
      • She ate all the chocolate chip cookies (bolded = attributive nouns)
      • There are many household chemical compounds that are dangerous (bolded = attributive nouns)
  • prepositional phrases
    • are not separated from the noun or verb they modify
      • The book, on that table is interesting << incorrect
      • The book on that table is very interesting << correct
  • relative clauses beginning with "that"
    • note that some "restrictive relative clauses" may also begin with the relative pronouns, which, who, whose, etc.
    • but relative clauses starting with "that" are always restrictive and thus are not separated from the word or sentence part they modify by punctuation
• EXCEPTION: parenthetical elements
  • only parenthetical elements with a pair of parentheses, commas or dashes may separate restrictive elements
  • the reason is that parenthetical elements are ungrammatical -- they exist OUTSIDE of the grammatical construction of a sentence
    • thus they can intrude upon a sentence
    • but they ALWAYS have paired punctuation, commas, dashes or parentheses, that isolate them from the rest of the sentence