Cultural Diffusion: are conquerors eventually conquered by the conquered?[edit | edit source]
a common thread to studies of rise and fall of empires and dynasties is cultural diffusion
cultural diffusion = the spreading and mixing of cultures, populations, technologies, disease, etc.
we will see in this review over and over how many conquerors become more like the people and places they conquered than what / who they were at the start of the conquest
empires rule and spread rule through the process of standardization
while we think of standardization as making things the same, it can also mean treating disparate groups equally
i.e., under legal or political standards of either tolerance or favor
in such systems, different groups may be treated unequally, but in a standardized system, the law or governance treats them consistently, if not equally
i.e., Islamic legal distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims
different taxes, military service, etc.
typical methods of standardization and unity include
as used by Kublai Khan, mean "origin" or "center" of the universe
"Great Yuan" named by the empire's founder, Kublai Khan, likely in order to inlude his rule within Chinese dynastic history as well as to claim the Mandate of Heaven
1271–1368
established by Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan
1st non-Han dynasty to rule China
Yuan emperors spoke Chinese but kept use of Mongolian
Kublai Khan's 1st capital was called "City of the Khans," but was changed in Han Chinese to "Great Capital"
he used the name changes to claim Chinese legitimacy
Ming is from the Chinese characters for sun and moon; it also means "luminescent"
the name was taken by Han Shantong who led early rebellions against the Yuan Dynasty; Han Shantong took on the name "King Ming" for "King of Light"
1368-1644
followed the collapse of Mongol rule under the Yuan Dynasty
the "Red Turban Rebellions" weakened the Yuan (named for red banners and hats)
Red Turban movement was started by a Chinese monk (associated w/ the Bhuddist White Lotus secret society that believed in fight of good v. evil, influencd by Manichaeism from ancient Persia, called in China "Mingjiao")
represented a Han Chinese ethnic rebellion against Mongol rule
reinstituted Confucian culture, which was largely Han
Ming emperors used court eunuchs (couldn't have children so posed no dynastic threat) to balance power w/ Confucian administrator
Temüjin is Chinese and may mean or be related to Truco-Mongol for "blacksmith"
Temüjin was given to him by his father upon defeat of a Tatar chief named Temüjin-üge
"Genghis Khan" means "great leader" or "universal ruler"
Khan meant chief of a clan (tribe)
Genghis may mean "sea" thus suggesting "ruler of the seas," thus all of the world
"Mongol" means "whole great nation"
1206–1368
Eurasia
Genghis Khan conquered / united central/northern Asian "tribal confederations" who were in constant warfare with one another
Mongol Empire c. 1207, upon Genghis Khan's consolidation of Mongol tribes in the northern steppe. Temüjin took the name "Genghis Khan" that year.
upon Genghis Khan's death the empire was divided into four "fragment" empires:
Asia in 1335, showing the four "Khanates", successor empires to the Mongol Empire, often referred to as "fragments" of it. The four "khanates" are *Yuan Dynasty * Golden Horde * Chagatai Khanate * Ilkhanate Khanate
named for the 2nd son of Ghengis Khan, Chagatai Khan
Chagatai was considered rebellious and refused to recognize Ghengis Khan's first son, Jochi, as his full brother (thus marking a weakness in such imperial arrangements that have different sons from different wives of an organizing ruler)
a Turkic language later developed in the region of Chagatai's rule, and was called "Chagatai"; the modern languages, Uzbek and Uyghur, a direct descendants of Chagatai
1242-1347 /
1347-1487
Chagatai inherited this region after the death of Genghis Khan in 1227; Chagatia died in 1242
during reign of Kublai Khan (who started the Yuan Dynasty), Chagatai rulers broke away from his rule
Chagatai Khanate consists of modern Central Asian states
in 1347, the Khanate was divided when Moghulistan was declared independent under a tribal alliance led by Tughlugh Timur
Tughlugh Timur converted to Islam
over time, his successors were also Muslim and eventually imposed Sharia Law
in the 1400s the region underwent "Turkification," where by Turkic populations / culture largerly replaced Mongol culture adn/or Moghul populations
Illkhanid may have Persian meaning for "Iran-zamin" or "Land of Iran"
"Iran" is from "of the PIE root *arya" ("one who assembles skillfully") from which "Aryan" and eventually "Iran" are derived
original conquest of the territory was by Genghis Khan's 3rd son, Hulagu Khan, who defeated the Abbasid Caliphate
1256–1335
Persia & northern Middle East/ Anatolia
southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire
the shortest-lived of the four fragmented Khanates, principally due to the larger historical experience of exchange, conquest, and mixing of cultures in the Middle East, as well as its location as central Eurasian/African crossroads.
The Ilkhanate at its greatest extent
at first, Hulagu, and especially his successors, feuded w/ the Golden Horde rulers
the Ilkhanates resisted adopting Islam and ruled w/ religious tolerance (esp. in Persia)
the 7th ruler, Ghazan, converted to Islam upon taking the throne in 1298
still, he aligned with European Christian Crusaders to fight back the Mamluk (Egyptian Muslim armies)
upon collapse of the Ilkhanate Khanate, the northern Middle East fell into regional rule, which led to the rise of the Turks.
from origins under Charlemagne who was crowned "Holy Roman Emperor" in 800 by Pope Leo III
Charlemagne thus gained Church legitimacy in exchange for vassalhood to the Church
"Holy Roman" = representing the Roman Church
Empire = power supposedly inherited from ancient Roman emperors, i.e., considered in their lineage
800-1806
(962 alternative start date)
early stages, included France under the Carolingian line of French (Frankish) kings, but as France emerged as independent kingdom under the Capetian dynasty ( 987 to 1328, started by Hugh Capet; no certainty for the name, "Capet", but one can think of "head" for Capet, as in "head of France")
The Holy Roman Empire between 972 and 1032
House of Valois (France)
1328-1589
House of Bourbon (France)
1589-1792, 1815-1830, 1830-1848
note the interrupted timeline, starting w/ the French Revolution, 1792, and the Napoleonic period, then 1815, 1830 and 1848 revolutions
Napoleon
Austrian Empire / Hapsburgs
"House of Hapsburg" from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in in early 1000s in modern day Switzerland
empire indicates conquest, so think of Hungary, Slavic countries, lower Germany, etc.
1804–1867
mixed politically with Spanish monarchy under the Holy Roman Empire
Notes: on Islamic Caliphates and empires[edit | edit source]
Caliphate from "Caliph" which means successor of Muhammad
literally translated from Arabic = "Successor of the Messenger of God"
the Caliph was considered ruler of the entire Muslim world (called the "umma" for "follower of Islam")
note that "umma" transcends ethnic/ tribal alliances
Sunni Caliphs were elected or selected by Islamic leaders
Islam means "submit to God"
Sharia is the Islamic law
includes civil, political and criminal codes governing crime, family, trade, education, daily life and routines
Sunni = "community"
started by Muhammad's father-in-law, Abu Bakr
Sunnis follow Caliphs
Sunni religious rule is decentralized and localized
Shi'a or Shiite is from "Shi'aat Ali" for "followers of Ali"
Ali was Muhammad's son-in-law and the husband of his daughter, Fatima
Shiites did not recognize the first three Caliphates as legiitimate
Shi'a religious and political rule is centralized and extremely antagonistic towards Sunnis
Sayyid is a title of descendancy from Muhummad
Sunni rules for the title require expertise on the Koran
Shia claims for the title are more political
"Sharif" comes from "sayyid"
Map of expansion of Islamic rule: - Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632- Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661- Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750
established by Abu Bakr, 632, who reunited Arabia under Islam following Muhammad's death
under the idea, "Muhammad dead, Allah alive"
632–661
Middle East, North Africa, southwestern Anatolia
Abu Bakr conquered Arabia and united all the tribes under "umma"
did not establish a monarchy, so succession was not hereditary
all four Rashidun Caliphs were related to Muhammad through marriage
Political alignment at eve of Muslim conquest of Middle East: - Byzantine Empire controlled Asia Minor, Greece, Levant (eastern coast of Mediterranean) and North Africa - Sasanian Empire controlled Peria and Mesopotamia - Rashidun Caliphate controls Arabia and was highly expansionist
"Ottoman" from anglicization of "Osman I" founder of the empire
the Turks also called it "Osmanli" for him
so Ottoman referred to elites
"while Turks" became a reference to lower classes
also called "Turkish Empire"
"Turk" = a dominant central Asian ethnic group
"Ottoman Caliphate" is considered the 4th caliphate
1517–1924
Middle East, Anatolia, Southeastern Europe, Greece, North Africa
Selim I expanded the empire in 1512-1520
by claiming himself a Caliph, Selim I established his empire as a "Caliphate", which gave him the claim to legitimacy in the Muslim world and made him protector of Mecca
