Grammar
Grammar
- = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words)
Article purpose
- this article focuses on sentences and sentence parts, including:
- sentence definition
- clauses & phrases
- types of nouns, verbs, adjectives and modifiers & their use in a sentence
Note: "punctuation" and "parts of speech" are sub-categories of "grammar"
- see also:
- Punctuation
- Parts of Speech for grammar and usage rules on word categories
- List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech categories, and the rules governing their use
- SAT Writing has grammar and punctuation rules and advice
Other related categories:
- category:linguistics
- homographs including:
- homophones, homonyms & heteronyms
Note on abbreviations
- IC = "independent clause"
- DC = "dependent clause"
- SV = "subject + verb"
- SVO = "subject + verb + object"
- CB = College Board
- SAT practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]
Sentence[edit | edit source]
- a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate
- i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought.
- "Go!" = the subject, usually, "you" is implied
- this form of a command is called an "imperative" or "exclamatory" sentence.
- sentence complexity is created around the core Subject Verb Object/Predicate by adding:
- clauses
- modifiers
- phrases
- prepositions, etc.
Categories of sentence purposes[edit | edit source]
- declarative sentence
- makes a statement
- most sentences are declarative in that they state something
- exclamatory sentence
- = a statement of urgency or emotion
- also called an "exclamation"
- ex. "That really hurt!"
- = a statement of urgency or emotion
- interrogative sentence
- = a question or a request
- ex. "Is it raining?"
- may include rhetorical questions, such as, "Why does it have to rain now?" which may also be considered declarative
- imperative sentence
- = a or command
- ex., "Get to work!"
- may also be an exclamatory statement
- ex. "No!"
- = a or command
case[edit | edit source]
- case = circumstance or situation
- dictionary definition of "case"
- Inflected forms of a noun, adjective or pronoun that express the semantic relation of the word to others in the sentence
- in grammar, then, case is the "circumstance" of a word, how it is "situated" in a sentence
- case indicates the form and relationship of certain words
- case regards nouns, adjectives and verbs
- "inflected" means changed or emphasized
- word "inflections" are changes in a word according to chase
- who v. whom, or I go v. he goes
- the change at the end of the word, its stem, is an inflection
subjective v. objective case[edit | edit source]
- subjective = a point of view, an opinion
- objective = without opinion, a universal point of view
common errors of subjective v. objective case[edit | edit source]
- "between you and I"= incorrect
- "between" is a preposition, which uses the objective case of the noun
- thus it should be, "between you and me"
- "she told you and I to be quiet" = incorrect
- "she" = subject, "you" = the object ("she told you" or "she told me")
- "who do you love = incorrect and kinda correct
- "who" is an object, so should be "whom"
- however, common use of this expression has made "who do you love" an idiomatic expression
Subject[edit | edit source]
- one of two parts of a sentence or a clause
- the subject is the "doer" of the
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
subject phrase[edit | edit source]
- the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word
- a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence
- ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
- so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,
- "The weather conditions are poor"
- "The conditions of those teams are poor"
- so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,
- ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
Predicate[edit | edit source]
- from Latin praedicatum for "something declared"
- in logic, the "predicate" is the underlying claim or basis for a contention or proposition
- there are several definitions of "predicate" in grammar
- the verb of a subject, also called a a "simple predicate"
- the verb of a subject and additional direct information about the subject
- everything in a complete sentence except the subject, also called a a "complete predicate"
- generally, the predicate expresses the action of the subject and the result of that action
Verb[edit | edit source]
- the subject is the "doer" of the
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
linking verb[edit | edit source]
- "link" a subject to something about that subject that is not a direct action
- linking verbs are:
- "to be" and all of its "auxiliary verb" forms, am/is/are, was/were, has/have been, is/are being, might be, could, should, might, must
- to become, to seem
- ex.:
- "Thank God it is Friday!"
- "The kids are hungry"
Object[edit | edit source]
- the subject is the "doer" of the
- see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
- here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
subject complement[edit | edit source]
- adds information to a subject following a linking verb (see above)
- = an object that is not a noun
- ex. "Jillian thought it was late"
object complement[edit | edit source]
- a word that modifies an object
- object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action
- such as, appoint, call, create, declare, direct, elect, tell
>> to complete
Phrase[edit | edit source]
- = a sentence part that does not have a subject and verb (which would make it into a clause)
- can be two or more words, depending on the type of phrase (see below)
- phrases are connected to an IC by a comma
- phrases are not complete sentences or thoughts
- however, phrases are meaningful sentence parts (i.e,, they give meaning to the sentence)
- that is, phrases add information to a clause or one of its parts
- sources:
adjective phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more words that act as an adjective
- ex.
- can also be compound words, such as "well-adjusted"
- well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle)
adverb or adverbial phrase[edit | edit source]
complement or requisite phrase[edit | edit source]
- a word, phrase or clause that is necessary, or required, to complete an idea or sentence
- complements are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
infinitive phrase[edit | edit source]
- infinitives = "to" form of a verb
- but that acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
- ex. "I decided to go to the park"
- "to go" is an infinitive phrase that acts as the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
- i.e. it is the object of what "I decided"
- "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go"
- ex. "The teacher reminded the class to study for the test tomorrow"
- "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
- "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class"
- "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
- ex. "I decided to go to the park"
- but that acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
- note: sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive:
- ex. "The waiter made me wait"
- "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait")
- ex. "The waiter made me wait"
- see: Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)
noun phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more words that together act as a noun
- noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
- the little dog
- my little dog
- noun phrases may be the subject or object of a sentence:
- "The little dog begged for a bone"
- "I ordered the little dog to sit"
- noun phrases are easy to see as they include a noun and together act like a noun
- test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
- "The little dog begged for a bone"= "He begged for a bone"
- "I ordered him to sit"
- test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
- gerund phrases are more difficult to distinguish
- especially as to if the gerund is acting as a noun or an adjective/adverb
- noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
- gerund phrases are noun phrases:
- a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
- "Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar leaves me bored beyond crying"
- the gerund "watching" is the subject
- note that "crying" is gerund, as well
- the gerund "watching" is the subject
- "Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar leaves me bored beyond crying"
- when the gerund phrase becomes descriptive, it becomes a participial or adjective phrase:
- "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
- if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
- we cannot say, "running with the ball scored" so "running" = a present participle adjective not a gerund
- see also, "He scored running with the ball"
- or, "He scored 12 points running with the ball"
- in both cases the present participle acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb)
- if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
- it's easier to see with this gerund phrase:
- "The doctor said smoking is bad" = gerund phrase as direct object
- "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
- a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
- see Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)
participial phrase[edit | edit source]
- a type of adjective phrase
- uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective
- note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund)
- frequently serves as an introductory or concluding phrase that qualifies or adds meaning to the main clause
- ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work."
- "thinking" = present participle of the verb "to think"
- the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective
- so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work"
- or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"
- ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work."
prepositional phrase[edit | edit source]
- introduced by a preposition, which creates a relationship to a noun or a verb
- ex. of, by, for, on, etc.
- prepositional phrases act as either adjectives or adverbs
- i.e, they add information to or modify a noun or a verb
- adjective ex:
- "Books on sailing are fun to read"
- "on sailing" describes the types of books that are "fun to read"
- "Books on sailing are fun to read"
- adverb ex.:
- "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store"
- "to the store" = adverb to describe where Stephanie rode
- "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store"
verb phrase[edit | edit source]
- two or more verbs that act as a single verb
- = main verb + a helping or "auxiliary" verb
- ex, "I couldn't have eaten any more cake if I tried"
- "eat" = the main verb
- "couldn't" and "have" = helping / auxiliary verbs
- note: "if I tried" is an adverb clause (describes "could have eaten")
- = a clause because it has a subject, "I" and a verb, "tried"
- = a subordinate clause bc of the subordinating conjunction, "if", which makes the clause, "I tried" into an incomplete thought
Style & usage[edit | edit source]
periods[edit | edit source]
- inside or outside qoutations?
- spaces after periods?
Grammar lesson plans[edit | edit source]
- Understanding sentence cores & how to build out ideas into complex sentences
- students are to write a series of three or four simple statements of fact.
- such as,
- I like dogs.
- I have a dog.
- My dog's name is Dudu.
- Dudu is fun to play with.
- students are then to combine these thoughts two at a time by employing sentence parts such as pronouns, conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions, such as:
- "Since I like dogs, I have one."
- "My dog's name is Dudu, and she is fun to play with"
- then combine those sentences/ ideas into a single, complex sentence:
- Since I like dogs, I have one named Dudu who is fun to play with"
- such as,
- students are to write a series of three or four simple statements of fact.
- Language and the law:
- Create courtroom scenario in which precision or imprecision in words, syntax, and grammar would change the outcome of the case
- such as the classic example of leading a witness, "Did you see the glass?" (as opposed to, "Did you see any glass?")
- Legal Writing Teaching Assistant: The Law Student's Guide to Good Writing (kentlaw.edu) from Chicago-Kent College of Law, by Prof. Marc Grinker
- Prof. Grinker reviews grammar and writing from a legal perspective
- offers examples of the need for precision in language and downfalls of poor usage and incorrect grammar
Conjunction[edit | edit source]
- conjunctions combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses)
- see parts of speech
Alphab. list | FANBOYS list | |
---|---|---|
and | F | for |
but | A | and |
for | N | nor |
or | B | but |
nor | O | or |
so | Y | yet |
yet | S | so |
coordinating conjunctions[edit | edit source]
- = combine independent clauses (clauses that can stand as sentences on their own)
subordinating conjunctions[edit | edit source]
- = conjunctions that "subordinate" or turn an independent clause into a subordinate clause, i.e., a sentence that cannot stand on its own
- = create a need for additional information and sets up or adds to the information that follows in the dominant or main clause
- ex.: "The dog played with his toy every day until it wore out" can be phrased using a subordinating conjunction, as per:
- "Until it wore out, the dog played with his toy every day."
- "Until it wore out" is not a complete sentence or thought
after | although | as | as if | as long as |
as much as | as soon as | as though | because | before |
even | even if | even though | if | if only |
if then | if when | inasmuch | just as | lest |
now | now that | now when | once | provided |
provided that | rather than | since | so that | supposing |
than | that | though | till | unless |
until | when | whenever | where | whereas |
where if | wherever | whether | which | while |
who | whoever | why |
Introductory clauses & phrases[edit | edit source]
introductory clause[edit | edit source]
- provides information or context to set up a dominant clause
- = a dependent clause (does not stand as a complete sentence)
- usually begin with a subordinating conjunction
- ex. "If you want to do well on the test, use the study guide"
introductory phrase[edit | edit source]
Modifiers, qualifiers & intensifiers[edit | edit source]
modifiers[edit | edit source]
- modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence
- modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader
- types of modifiers
- adjectives
- prepositions
- prepositional phrases
- adverbs
- verbs as modifiers
- participle phrase
- other
- adjective clause
- infinitive phrase
- adverbial clause
- absolute phrase
- Nouns as modifiers
qualifiers[edit | edit source]
- qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word
- types of qualifiers:
>> to do
intensifiers[edit | edit source]
- enhance or strengthen the meaning of a word
- (opposite of qualifiers which limit the meaning of a word)
- intensifiers are adverbs (which modify verbs and adjectives), such as "he ran very fast" or "he was very late"
- intensifiers can also act as adjectives in order to intensify an noun,
- as in "a total lie"
- types of intensifiers:
- positive intensifiers:
- very, extremely, absolutely, greatly, totally, highly, particularly, seriously, etc.
- negative intensifiers:
- never, at all, dangerously, never, etc.
- intensifiers that can be both positive or negative:
- awfully, completely
- positive intensifiers:
Sources for modifiers, qualifiers & intensifiers
- Modifiers (Walden.edu)]
- Modifiers Intensifiers, Qualifiers (My English Teacher)]
- [Intensifiers (Britishcouncil.org)]
- [Intensifier (Grammar-Monster.com)]
- for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)
Sentence diagramming[edit | edit source]
- diagraming sentences means identifying every part of speech of the words in a sentence
- See Parts of Speech
- see Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements
vocabulary & definitions[edit | edit source]
Attributive[edit | edit source]
Appositive[edit | edit source]
Clause[edit | edit source]
Colloquial[edit | edit source]
Denotation and Connotation[edit | edit source]
- denotation = literal meaning of a word
- connotation = associations wit words
- generally positive or negative associations