Parts of speech

Parts of Speech

• see List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech category, and rules governing their use

• Note on abbreviations
  • IC = "independent clause"
  • DC = "dependent clause"
  • SV = "subject + verb"
  • SVO = "subject + verb + object"
  • CB = College Board
    • all practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]

adjective

modify nouns

• nouns = things
• adjectives add additional information to "qualify" or "modify" the noun in order to create a more specific meaning, ex.:
  • "I wore the shoes" v. "I wore the comfortable shoes"
    • the idea changes from "I wore shoes" (in general) to the kind of shoes I wore, i.e, "the comfortable ones"

remain singular

• adjectives do not change to match plural nouns
  • i.e. "the red shoe" >> "the red shoes" and not "the reds shoes"
    • whether or not "shoe" is singular or plural, the adjective remains the same
      • other languages require singular/plural matching, such as "la chaussure rouge" ("the red shoe) v. "las chaussures rouges" (the reds shoes)

general uses of adjectives

• adjectives clarify what kind, what characteristic, what size, which details", etc.
  • what kind: "the regular class"
  • what characteristic: "the difficult class"
  • what size: "the small class"
  • which details: "the rowdy class"
  • note:
    • numbers are not technically adjectives, although they can operate like them
      • "the third class" = a qualification of which class (among others)

nouns and verbs as adjectives

• when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
  • see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
    • ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"
  • see "past participle" under Verbs
    • ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb

adjectives following subject-verb

• sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
  • ex. "Josephus felt sad"
  • here the adjective "sad" is modifying the subject (noun) "Josephus"
  • the adjective is not modifying the verb "felt"
    • if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
      • "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt
  • verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
    • be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem

adverb

modify verbs

• adverbs provide additional information about an action (verbs), including:
  • how, when, where, degree, or state of an action
  • ex. "He shopped quickly"

modify adjectives

• adverbs can also modify adjectives:
  • in the sense of describing "the state", degree, or situation of the descriptor
  • ex. "the coach was extremely angry"
    • "extremely" describes the extent to which the coach was "angry" (an adjective)
    • therefore, the adverb "extremely" acts upon the adjective "angry" as opposed to the verb "was"

adverb uses

• adverbs generally answer the "how" and "when" of an action (or verb):
  • how: "Soraya studied hard" or "Soraya studied quietly"
    • note that "hard" is also an adjective that describes high density of an object: "the stone is hard"
  • when: "Jocelyn arrived late"
• adverbs never describe a noun
  • ex. "she called the broken phone stupidly" v. "she called the broken phone stupid"
• Sources:
  • Adverb (literarydevices.net)
  • Adjective or Adverb (OWL)

article

• also called "determiner"
• definite article:
  • the
  • refers to a specific noun, usually already stated or defined
• indefinite article:
• a or an
  • refers to a general noun, usually not already stated or defined
  • indefinite articles are not used to refer to a general noun or one that cannot be counted
• click on EXPAND to see examples of articles:

• • • ex. "water" cannot be counted, so "a water" is incorrect
      • "may I have a water" should be instead "may I have some water"
  • zero articles
    • when the noun represents a generic idea, the article can be omitted
    • ex.
      • "They went on vacation" as opposed to "they went on a vacation "

• see
  • [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/using_articles.html Purdue OWN Using Articles}
  • What Are Articles?

interjection

• aside remarks or interruptions
• an exclamation
  • expresses a spontaneous reaction or emotion
• click EXPAND to see examples of interjections:

• "no!"
• "okay"
• "damn!"
• "heh!"

noun

• persons, places, things
• proper nouns

object

• direct object
• indirect object

noun as modifier

• one type of consecutive nouns may be a noun acting as a modifier, as if an adjective (but not one)
• such nouns are called "attributive" nouns
  • also called "adjunct" (supporting of) nouns or "apposite" (related to)
• attributive nouns modify or qualify another noun
  • modify = change or add to the meaning of
  • qualify = limit the meaning of
  • attributive = provides an "attribute" or characteristic or quality to the other noun
• ex.: "dog food"
  • i.e.: "dog food" = "a type of food that is for dogs"
  • "dog" thereby indicates an attribute, or type or characteristic, of "food"
• example of multiple objects + a attributive nouns:
  • "The pitcher threw the batter a hardball pitch"
  • S: pitcher V: threw IO: catcher ADJ: hardball (appositive noun) DO: pitch
    • could also be expressed as: "the pitcher threw a (hardball) pitch to the catcher"
      • "hardball" = a noun, but here it is describing the direct object "pitch"
      • thus "hardball" is acting like an adjective
• the attributive noun is (almost) always singular
  • = because it is acting like an adjective, which always remains in the singular form ("red shoes" as opposed to "reds shoes")
  • = as a category or type, the noun must remain singular
  • exception for plural attributive nouns = special words such as "arms race" or "rewards card"
  • possessive attributive noun:
    • ex.: "the National's game"
    • these are often morphed into plural attributive, thus "National's game" becomes "Nationals game", "reward's card" becomes "rewards card", or "lady's night" becomes "ladies night"
  • multiple attributives
    • ex.: "beef dog food" or "
    • news headlines often use multiple attributives, such as "South Park man Kenneth "Kenny" McCormick dies again"
• strict grammatical terms does now apply the "attributive" label for "adjective homograph" nouns (such as "iron" or "paper") or "compounds" or "open compounds"
  • see https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/explanatory-notes/dict-attributive-nouns
• attributive nouns are not adjectives
  • the only syntactic form of an adjective that the attributive noun employs is the "prepositive" position
    • i.e., preceding the noun it modifies
      • big dog, small house
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as post-positive adjectives (following the noun):
    • whereas an adjective can be a subject complement:
      • boring meeting >> the meeting is boring
    • dog food >> food dog or business meeting >> meeting business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as subject complements (as do adjectives)
    • the food is dog or the meeting is business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot take on a comparative form (as do adjectives)
    • whereas nouns can go from big to bigger
      • big test >> bigger test
    • attributive nouns cannot: businesser meeting << doesn't work
• see also additional entry on
  • "appositive phrase"
  • compound noun
  • noun adjunct
• see:
  • Noun adjunct (wiki)
  • Nouns as Modifiers (meg.com)

Consecutive nouns as multiple objects

• consecutive nouns can act as multiple objects of a verb
  • i.e., two nouns next to one another
  • as in "I gave the boy a donut"
• when the action has a direct and indirect object, the indirect object is often preceded by "to" in order to indicate the direct object
  • however, we frequently drop the "to", which remains implied in the sentence
    • so instead of "I gave a donut to the boy" we simply say, "I gave the boy a donut"
  • another ex. "She gave the man grief"
    • can also be expressed as "She gave grief to the man"
    • the noun "grief" is what was given (direct object) and the noun "man" is to whom the grief was given (indirect object)

Click expand for an example of multiple nouns as objects from CB Writing practice test 10, question 36:

Tuition-reimbursement programs signal that employers offer their [36] [workers’ opportunities] for personal and professional development.

A) worker's opportunities [NO CHANGE]
B) workers opportunities’
C) workers opportunities
D) worker’s opportunity’s

• elimination
  • x A) the possessive "worker's" confuses the direct object "opportunities" with the indirect object "workers"; in other words, "employers" don't offer "workers" they offer "opportunities"
  • x B) and x D) the noun "opportunities" cannot possess the preposition "for"
• Correct answer C) = SUBJECT: employers VERB: offer INDIRECT OBJECT: workers DIRECT OBJECT: opportunities

preposition

• express relationship in time, place, or sequence
• add information to a sentence
• can relate other word forms to one another, including nouns (usually), adjectives, and verbs
• categories of prepositions:

Some types or categories of prepositions

time or sequence	at, after, between, during, since, etc.
place	above, across, along, among, behind, beneath, etc.
direction or movement	at, between, for , into, onto, etc.
manner or way	by, in, like, on, with, etc.

click EXPAND for list of prepositions:

Quick list of (single word) prepositions

across	after	among
before	behind	beneath
by	down	during
from	in	into
like	next	near	of	off	on
over	past	since
throughout	to	toward/s
under	until	up
upon	with	within/out

Quick list of combined words that act as a single-word preposition

according to	as of	ahead of
aside from	at the risk of	by means of
except for	in addition to	in case of
next to	on top of	up against

• See
  • [Preposition and postposition (wiki)]
  • [Prepositions and Prepositional phrases (englishgrammar101.com)]

Overlap of prepositions, adverbs & subordinating conjunctions

• some words operate or "overlap" in their grammatical roles

click EXPAND for more on the overlap of prepositions & adverbs and prepositions & subordinating conjunctions

• overlap of prepositions and adverbs:
  • = "intransitive preposition"
  • = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
    • note:
      • transitive verb = must be accompanied by an object
      • intransitive verb = does not need an object ("I feel happy")
      • so intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
• most dictionaries qualify intransitive prepositions as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
  • ex. of intransitive preposition: "They went ahead" or "The dog is outside"
    • with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions: "They went ahead of the others" or "The dog is outside the fence"
• overlap of prepositions and subordinating conjunctions
  • = a "conjunctive preposition"
  • ex.: "I got my license before last year" (before= preposition that defines when "I went to school")
  • vs.: "I got my license before last year ended" (before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first)
    • we can view "before" as subordinating the phrase, "last year ended," which is technically a complete thought and sentence
    • however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a #subordinating conjunction.
  • ex.: "She paid the bill after dinner"
  • vs.: "She paid the bill after she ate dinner"
  • ex.: "He played like a pro"
  • vs.: "He played like he was a pro"

prepositional phrase

• = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
• = dependent clauses, so are separated from a main or dominant clause by a comma
• prepositional phrases that modify verbs are called ""adverbial phrases"
• see
  • [Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]

other exceptions

• prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
  • and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
    • "During the summer is the best time to play outside"
    • "After I exercise is when I feel best"
• see:
  • [Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)]
  • [How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)]

pronoun

• "pro" = for; "noun"
• refer to a noun in oder to avoid repetition
• pronoun forms
  • subject
  • object
  • possessive
  • comparisons
  • see How to Pick Pronouns for Comparisons (Dummies)

verb

• express action or a state of being (a condition)
• verb forms:
  • verbs, or an action of a subject, can be expressed by a single verb or by a phrase, or multiple words, that expresses an action
  • verb phrases are known as "predicates"
  • technically = "predicate"
    • predicate = "the portion of a sentence which makes a claim about the subject" Predicate (grammar) (wikipedia)

Verb "moods"

• "grammatical moods" = a feature of verbs whereby the speaker "inflects" or expresses an idea by modifying tone and emphasis for a specific meaning
• there are four general grammatical moods for verbs:

indicative mood

• a statement of fact
• often in the form of a "declarative" sentence
  • ex. "I am hungry!"
    • the speaker emphasizes "I" and "am"

imperative mood

• a command or advice
  • ex. "You should really get to work"
  • the speaker will emphasize the adverb and object

subjunctive mood

• expresses emotion, possibility or opinion
  • possibility = something that has not happened"
  • ex. "Once we get this done..."

optative mood

• expresses a wish or hope for something
  • ex. "May the best man win!"
  • the speaker's inflection frequently rises with the last word
  • may often also be subjunctive
• see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language#Morphology

transitive and intransitive verbs

• transitive verbs act upon a direct object
  • ex. "The soccer player kicked the ball"
• intransitive verbs do not have a direct object
  • ex. "The soccer player played hard" (hard = an adverb that describes the verb "played" and is not an object)

<< to complete / expand

infinitives

• infinitives use "to"
  • ex. "I go to see the game"
• root forms act like infinitives but without the "to"
  • infinitive and base forms are generally interchangeable:
  • ex. "He helped her clean her desk" (root form)
  • v. "He helped her to clean her desk" (infinitive form)
• note that "root" and "base" forms are used interchangeably
  • except "base form" of a verb includes infinitive and simple present forms of the verb

present tense forms

• simple present
  • denotes a single action that is repeated, always happens, or the present condition of something
  • examples
    • repeated action: "I eat lunch at noon."
    • action that always (or, in the negative, never) happens: "I can't speak Latin"
  • denotes the condition or state of something: "The car is clean" or "I feel great!"
  • simple present form is also considered as a "base" verb form
• present progressive
  • = -ing form for a verb to express an ongoing action
    • used with "to be" conjugations ("am" "is", etc.) the -ing verb form denotes an ongoing action
    • ex. "She is dancing"
    • see participle for the -ing form of a verb that acts as an adjective or a noun (called a gerund)
  • note that present progressive verb forms are frequently used to combine sentences or independent clauses
  • click EXPAND to see examples of present progressive verbs used to combine independent clauses

• ex. "I went to see the sequel, and I hoped it would be as good as the first
• the two independent clauses (complete sentences) can be combined by converting the "I hoped" to the present progressive form, "hoping"
• "I went to see the sequel, hoping it would as good as the first"
• note that "hoping" renders the second clause dependent (not a complete sentence or thought), thus employing only a comma and not a comma + conjunction
• present progressive verbs subordinate clauses:
  • "Hoping it would be as good as the first" is not a complete sentence or thought
    • thus it is a dependent or subordinate clause

• see also:
  • [present participles vs present progressives (thoughtco.com]
• present perfect
  • indicates an action that happened at one point or that just happened and that consequences on the present
  • usually uses the "has" or "have" forms of a verb
    • "Yes, I have eaten dinner already"
    • "I have played soccer since I was five"
    • "I haven't seen her in years"

past tense forms

• past simple
  • an action that happened in the past
  • click EXPAND for past simple examples:

• • • "I ate before they showed up"
    • "I played soccer yesterday"
    • "I lived in Brazil"

• past progressive
  • actions that were ongoing at some point in the past or that were repeated in the past
  • uses the -ing form of a verb
• * click Expand for past progressive examples:

past progressive examples:

• • • "I was eating when they showed up"
    • "I was playing soccer all last year"
    • "I was living in Brazil"

• past perfect
• an action that happened before something else happened (both in the past)
• uses "had" to show the earlier event
  • and compares it to another even with "before", "because" or "by the time", etc.
• click Expand for past perfect examples:

• • "I had already eaten when they showed up"
  • "I had played soccer long before I learned rugby"
  • "Because I had lived in Brazil, I already knew some Spanish"

future tense forms

• future simple
  • an action that will take place in the future, usually with "will"
• click Expand for future simple examples:

• • • "I will eat after they show up"
    • I will play soccer tomorrow"
    • I will live in Brazil next year"
  • future simple also indicates a promise to do something in the future
    • "I will play harder next time"

• future progressive
  • an action that will be ongoing in the future, usually with "will" and "-ing"
• click Expand for future progressive examples:

• • • "I will be eating with them when they show up"
    • "I will be playing soccer again after my ankle heals"
    • "I will be living in Brazil all next year"

• future perfect
  • an action that will happen before something else, usually with "will have"
  • future perfect combines the future "will" with a past tense verb form
  • future perfect also indicates an ongoing future state or condition
• click Expand for future perfect examples:

• "I will have eaten before they show up"
• "I will have played much better by the time we got to the playoffs"
• "I will have lived in Brazil by the end of next summer"
  • or
• "If they show up late, I will have been eating already."
• "By next year, I will have played soccer for 12 years"
• "I will have lived in Brazil a full year as of next week"

• future perfect progressive
  • an action that will be going on until something else happens
  • uses the "will have been" and -ing form of the verb
• click Expand for future perfect progressive examples:

• "I will have been eating by the time they show up"
• "By the end of the season, I will have been playing better"
• "By next week, I will have been living in Brazil a full year"

participles and gerunds

• verb forms that act like an adjective, adverb or noun
• types:
• participles
  • present participle
    • verb form using -ing that acts as an adjective or an adverb
  • past participle:
    • past tense verb form that acts as an adjective
  • gerund
    • verb form using -ing that acts as a noun

present participle

• uses the -ing form of a verb as an adjective or an adverb
  • present participles describe nouns, noun phrases, or verbs (actions)
• present participles as adjectives:
  • "The boiling water is hot" (describes the water)
  • "This trip is exciting" (modifies or describes the trip)
  • "The directions are confusing" (modifies the directions)
• present participles as adverbs:
  • note: here grammar becomes debatable: this form of a particle can be seen as an adverb or a gerund (noun):
  • Smiling, she went about her work" (modifies how she "went about her work")
  • or "She went about her work smiling"

participles and adverbs

• present participles may themselves be modified by an adverb
  • ex.: ** or "She went about her work smiling enormously"

<< to confirm

past participle

• verbs in the past tense used as an adjective
  • = the simple past tense of a verb is used to show a condition of something
  • typically are -ed -en and -t forms
  • includes irregular verbs in the past tense, such as "to be" "to go" etc.
• ex:
  • "Boiled water is sanitized" ("boiled" and "sanitized" describe the noun, water)
  • "The glass was broken when I found it" ("was broken" describes the noun, glass)
  • "The cut flowers are pretty" ("cut modifies the noun, flowers)

gerunds

• • verbs that act as nouns
  • use the -ing form of the verb
• ex:
  • "to swim" + -ing = "swimming" = a noun for the act of swimming
  • "Swimming is fun"
  • "Boiling the water sanitizes it" ("boiling" is an act, therefore a noun, from the verb "to boil")
• gerunds are used as objects of verbs, ex:
  • "The student hesitated raising her hand"
• Note: gerunds are often interchangeable with infinitives
  • "The student hesitated raising her hand" vs "The student hesitated to raise her hand", or:
  • "I hate doing math" vs "I hate to do math"
  • however, note that gerunds and infinitives may act differently in terms of the object of the sentence:
• gerunds are used with prepositions, ex:
  • "Before leaving, he turned off the lights" << "before" is a preposition
  • "Joanna stepped carefully after dropping the glass" <<"after" = preposition
• click on EXPAND for how gerunds and infinitives change the meaning of a sentence using College Board Writing practice test 6 question 21:

"Burland advocated using soil extraction:"

• A) NO CHANGE
  • "Burland advocated using..." = he advocates for the use of soil extraction (he advocates the the object)
• B) advocated to use
  • "Burland advocated to use..." = he advocates "to use" (he advocates the action)
• A) NO CHANGE is correct because it is the object of the sentence, "soil extraction," that Burland advocates, not the action of its use (to use")

telling the difference between a gerund & a participle

• since participles act as adjectives, they are not essential to make a complete sentence or thought
• since gerunds act as nouns, they are essential to make a complete sentence or thought (as a subject or object or other noun form)
• to test whether verb is acting as a gerund or participle:
  • is it modifying a
  • remove it from the sentence

using gerunds and participles

• the reason we use gerunds and participle is to express either the state of an action ("swimming") or what an action does/did to a noun ("boiled water")
• gerunds and participles allow for simpler expression of those ideas than if they were expressed as subject-verbs
• gerunds may act as subordinating conjunction
  • such as "Scrambling up the hill, he barely made it to the top."
    • "Scrambling up the hill" is not a complete thought or sentence, so it is subordinate to the main clause, "he barely made it to the top.
  • as opposed to "He scrambled up the hill, and he barely made it to the top"
  • or "He scrambled up the hill and barely made it to the top"
    • each form expresses a different emphasis upon sentence parts
• -ing forms as adverbs may concisely express a "relative clause" (a sentence part that is related to

participles as dangling modifiers

• participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers"
  • = adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they modify, ex:
    • "Smiling happily, she won the choral competition"

= unclear if she won the competition becuase she was "smiling happily" or she was "smiling happily" when she won the tournament

• see https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/d Dangling participle (english-grammar-revolution.com)
• See
  • [Gerund examples (yourdictionary.com)]
  • Grammar: Verb Forms: "-ing," Infinitives, and Past Participles (Walden Univ)
  • Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing (Walden Univ)
  • The -ing forms (ef.edu Resources for Learning English
  • Grammar-Monster.com participles

>> to do: from: https://classroom.synonym.com/can-word-verb-adjective-3119.html

Sometimes, it can be difficult to tell the difference between a gerund and a participle. A good rule of thumb to follow is that a participle can be omitted and the sentence will still make sense.

The old lady showed me the way to the museum still works without the participle "smiling," but the same doesn't work for a gerund. If you omit “smoking” from the sentence, He was scolded for smoking, it won’t make sense.

The sentence, Visiting relatives can be boring, is ambiguous because visiting can be interpreted here as a gerund or as a participle. If you interpreted it as "going to relatives houses can be boring," you saw it as a gerund that appears in the subject position in the sentence. You can replace it with a simple noun to confirm it (e.g. Math can be boring). If you interpreted it as "relatives who come to your house can be boring," you saw it as a participle that serves as an adjective modifying the noun "relatives." In this case, you can omit it (Relatives can be boring) and the sentence will still make sense.

subjunctive

• also called "subjunctive mood"
• expresses a hypothetical or possible scenario
  • called "mood" because it often expresses an emotion or desire for something to happen or exist
• subjunctive phrases usually pair verbs of opposing tenses, as in "if I had, I would"
  • ex.: "If I had studied harder, I would have done better on the test."
    • "had studied" = past perfect (an action that happened at one time)
    • "would have studied" = conditional perfect tense (also "past tense modal")
      • "would" = past tense of "will" thereby represents an imaginary action from the past
• see
  • [English subjunctive(wiki)]

verb conjugations

• students of Latin, Spanish or French verb conjugations while not learning about them in English
• English has conjugations, as do other Indo-European languages
  • however, the conjugations in English do not vary as much
• conjugations work by changing the verb suffix or form to match subject case

>> to chart out comparison of Latin, Spanish, French and English cases << to do

• see
  • Verb conjugations (verbto.com)
  • Have conjugation (wikitionary.com)