Grammar

Grammar

• = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words)

Article purpose

• this article focuses on sentences and sentence parts, including:
  • sentence definition
  • clauses & phrases
  • types of nouns, verbs, adjectives and modifiers & their use in a sentence

Note: "punctuation" and "parts of speech" are sub-categories of "grammar"

• see also:
  • Punctuation
  • Parts of Speech for grammar and usage rules on word categories
  • List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech categories, and the rules governing their use
• SAT Writing has grammar and punctuation rules and advice

Other related categories:

• category:linguistics
  • etymology (word origin)
  • semantics (individual word meaning)
  • syntax (word choice, combinations and context)
• homographs including:
  • homophones, homonyms & heteronyms

Note on abbreviations

• IC = "independent clause"
• DC = "dependent clause"
• SV = "subject + verb"
• SVO = "subject + verb + object"
• CB = College Board
  • SAT practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]

Sentence

• a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate
  • i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought.
  • "Go!" = the subject, usually, "you" is implied
    • this form of a command is called an "imperative" or "exclamatory" sentence.
• sentence complexity is created around the core Subject Verb Object/Predicate by adding:
  • clauses
  • modifiers
  • phrases
  • prepositions, etc.

Constituents

• constituent = a word or words that creates a unique grammatical unit in a sentence
  • word origin:
    • con- = with
    • stitu = from PIE -sta and Latin statuare for "to stand"
    • -ent = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun)
• constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence
  • constituent parts operates as an heirarchy
    • i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun

Categories of sentence purposes

• declarative sentence
  • makes a statement
  • most sentences are declarative in that they state something
• exclamatory sentence
  • = a statement of urgency or emotion
    • also called an "exclamation"
  • ex. "That really hurt!"

• interrogative sentence
  • = a question or a request
  • ex. "Is it raining?"
  • may include rhetorical questions, such as, "Why does it have to rain now?" which may also be considered declarative
• imperative sentence
  • = a or command
    • ex., "Get to work!"
  • may also be an exclamatory statement
    • ex. "No!"

case

• case = circumstance or situation
• dictionary definition of "case"
  • Inflected forms of a noun, adjective or pronoun that express the semantic relation of the word to others in the sentence
• in grammar, then, case is the "circumstance" of a word, how it is "situated" in a sentence
  • case indicates the form and relationship of certain words
  • case regards nouns, adjectives and verbs
  • "inflected" means changed or emphasized
  • word "inflections" are changes in a word according to chase
    • who v. whom, or I go v. he goes
    • the change at the end of the word, its stem, is an inflection

subjective v. objective case

• subjective = a point of view, an opinion
• objective = without opinion, a universal point of view

common errors of subjective v. objective case

• "between you and I"= incorrect
  • "between" is a preposition, which uses the objective case of the noun
  • thus it should be, "between you and me"
• "she told you and I to be quiet" = incorrect
  • "she" = subject, "you" = the object ("she told you" or "she told me")
• "who do you love = incorrect and kinda correct
  • "who" is an object, so should be "whom"
  • however, common use of this expression has made "who do you love" an idiomatic expression

Subject

• one of two parts of a sentence or a clause
  • subject + predicate (verb)
• the subject is the "doer" of the
  • see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
• here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence

subject complement

• adds information to a subject following a linking verb (is, seems, sounds, etc.)
  • the word that follows the linking verb "complements" or "completes" the subect
    • "It was late"
    • "Gillian is a doctor"

subject phrase

• the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word
• a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence
  • ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
    • so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,
      • "The weather conditions are poor"
      • "The conditions of those teams are poor"
      • "Being smart helps on that test"

Object

• the recipient of the actions
  • see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
• objects follow "transitive" verbs, which indicate an action that necessarily "acts" upon something
  • ex. "I hit the ball"
    • hit = transitive verb (requires an object)
    • ball = the recipient of the action

object complement

• a word that modifies an object
• object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action
  • such as, appoint, call, create, declare, direct, elect, tell
    • The committee appointed her president
    • My mom declared the cookies out of bounds

>> to complete

Predicate

• from Latin praedicatum for "something declared"
  • in logic, the "predicate" is the underlying claim or basis for a contention or proposition
• there are several definitions of "predicate" in grammar
  1. the verb of a subject, also called a a "simple predicate"
  2. the verb of a subject and additional direct information about the subject
  3. everything in a complete sentence except the subject, also called a a "complete predicate"
• generally, the predicate expresses the action of the subject and the result of that action

Verb

• the subject is the "doer" of the
• see Parts of Speech for list of sentence parts
• here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence

linking verb

• "link" a subject to something about that subject that is not a direct action
• linking verbs are:
  • "to be" and all of its "auxiliary verb" forms, am/is/are, was/were, has/have been, is/are being, might be, could, should, might, must
  • to become, to seem
• ex.:
  • "Thank God it is Friday!"
  • "The kids are hungry"

Phrase

• = a sentence part that does not have a subject and verb (which would make it into a clause)
  • can be two or more words, depending on the type of phrase (see below)
• phrases are connected to an IC by a comma
• phrases are not complete sentences or thoughts
  • however, phrases are meaningful sentence parts (i.e,, they give meaning to the sentence)
  • that is, phrases add information to a clause or one of its parts
• sources:
  • The Phrase (chompchomp.com)
  • English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)

absolute phrase

• modifies the main clause of a sentence
  • and not just a single word
• contains a noun and an adjective
  • the adjective can be a prepositional phrase or a past or present participle adjective
• absolute phrases add non-essential information to a sentence

adjective phrase

• two or more words that act as an adjective
• ex.
  • can also be compound words, such as "well-adjusted"
    • well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle)

adverb phrase or adverbial phrase

• two or more words that operate as an adverb to modify an action
• examples:
  • I'm staying until closing"
  • She'll be there in a minute*
    • * note that when a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it is technically an adverbial phrase
  • He ran very quickly

appositive phrase

>> to do

complement or requisite phrase

• a word, phrase or clause that is necessary, or required, to complete an idea or sentence
  • complements are not separated from the main clause by punctuation

infinitive phrase

• infinitives = "to" form of a verb
  • but that acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
    • ex. "I decided to go to the park"
      • "to go" is an infinitive phrase that acts as the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
      • i.e. it is the object of what "I decided"
      • "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go"
    • ex. "The teacher reminded the class to study for the test tomorrow"
      • "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
        • "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class"
• note: sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive:
  • ex. "The waiter made me wait"
    • "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait")
• see: Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)

introductory phrase

• introduces a main clause
• generally followed by a comma to separate it from the main clause
• types of introductory phrases
  • absolute phrase (Tools in hand, I went to work without reading the manual)
  • appositive phrase (Quite useful, the manual is a must-read)
  • infinitive phrase (To know how, you need to read the manual)
  • participial phrase (Not knowing how, I had to read the manual)
  • prepositional phrase (Inside the box, you will find the manual)

noun phrase

• two or more words that together act as a noun
  • noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
    • the little dog
    • my little dog
  • noun phrases may be the subject or object of a sentence:
    • "The little dog begged for a bone"
    • "I ordered the little dog to sit"
  • noun phrases are easy to see as they include a noun and together act like a noun
    • test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
      • "The little dog begged for a bone"= "He begged for a bone"
      • "I ordered him to sit"
  • gerund phrases are more difficult to distinguish
    • especially as to if the gerund is acting as a noun or an adjective/adverb
• gerund phrases are noun phrases:
  • a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
    • "Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar leaves me bored beyond crying"
      • the gerund "watching" is the subject
        • note that "crying" is gerund, as well
  • when the gerund phrase becomes descriptive, it becomes a participial or adjective phrase:
    • "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
      • if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
        • we cannot say, "running with the ball scored" so "running" = a present participle adjective not a gerund
      • see also, "He scored running with the ball"
      • or, "He scored 12 points running with the ball"
        • in both cases the present participle acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb)
    • it's easier to see with this gerund phrase:
      • "The doctor said smoking is bad" = gerund phrase as direct object
• see Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)

participial or participle phrase

• a type of adjective phrase
• participial phrases "show" (describe, act as modifier) rather than "tell" (show action)
• uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective
  • note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund)
• frequently serves as an introductory or concluding phrase that qualifies or adds meaning to the main clause
  • ex. "Thinking I was late, I rushed to work."
    • "thinking" = present participle of the verb "to think"
    • the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective
    • so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work"
  • or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"\

prepositional phrase

• introduced by a preposition, which creates a relationship to a noun or a verb
  • ex. of, by, for, on, etc.
• prepositional phrases act as either adjectives or adverbs
  • i.e, they add information to or modify a noun or a verb
• adjective ex:
  • "Books on sailing are fun to read"
    • "on sailing" describes the types of books that are "fun to read"
• adverb ex.:
  • "Stephanie rode her bicycle to the store"
    • "to the store" = adverb to describe where Stephanie rode

verb phrase

• two or more verbs that act as a single verb
  • = main verb + a helping or "auxiliary" verb
  • ex, "I couldn't have eaten any more cake if I tried"
    • "eat" = the main verb
    • "couldn't" and "have" = helping / auxiliary verbs
    • note: "if I tried" is an adverb clause (describes "could have eaten")
      • = a clause because it has a subject, "I" and a verb, "tried"
      • = a subordinate clause bc of the subordinating conjunction, "if", which makes the clause, "I tried" into an incomplete thought

Style & usage

>> note: to create larger entry for style & usage to be linked here <<

active versus passive voice

active voice

• = the subject and verb are directly stated
  • as in, He gave the dog a bone = subject + verb + indirect object + object
• transitive verbs (which require an object) are always active voice
  • I ate the entire pizza

passive voice

• = the verb acts upon the subject, i.e., the subject follows the verb
  • as in, The dog was given a bone by them = object + verb + subject (+ prep/phrase)
• passive voice uses the auxiliary verb "to be" + the past participle of the action verb
  • as in, The entire pizza was eaten by me
• when to use passive voice:
  • passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence
    • so if the object of the sentence is the important idea, then passive voice is fine
    • especially if the subject is irrelevant to the idea:
    • ex. The dog was given a bone
      • focus is on the dog and the bone, and we don't need to state who gave it the bone
• see
  • [Active vs. Passive Voice (grammarly.com)]

periods

• inside or outside qoutations?
  • see: https://style.mla.org/punctuation-and-quotation-marks/
• spaces after periods?
  • see https://style.mla.org/number-of-spaces-after-period/

Grammar lesson plans

• Understanding sentence cores & how to build out ideas into complex sentences
  • students are to write a series of three or four simple statements of fact.
    • such as,
      • I like dogs.
      • I have a dog.
      • My dog's name is Dudu.
      • Dudu is fun to play with.
    • students are then to combine these thoughts two at a time by employing sentence parts such as pronouns, conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions, such as:
      • "Since I like dogs, I have one."
      • "My dog's name is Dudu, and she is fun to play with"
    • then combine those sentences/ ideas into a single, complex sentence:
      • • Since I like dogs, I have one named Dudu who is fun to play with"
• Language and the law:
• Create courtroom scenario in which precision or imprecision in words, syntax, and grammar would change the outcome of the case
  • such as the classic example of leading a witness, "Did you see the glass?" (as opposed to, "Did you see any glass?")
  • Legal Writing Teaching Assistant: The Law Student's Guide to Good Writing (kentlaw.edu) from Chicago-Kent College of Law, by Prof. Marc Grinker
  • Prof. Grinker reviews grammar and writing from a legal perspective
  • offers examples of the need for precision in language and downfalls of poor usage and incorrect grammar

Conjunction

• conjunctions conjoin, combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses)

conjunctions that combine words =

• coordinators
  • coordinate or combine individual words or phrases:
    • as in:
      • apples and oranges are similar and distinct fruits
      • I only like apples or oranges that are ripe
• correlative conjunction
  • creates a combination or contrast of actions or ideas:
  • and, or, neither, nor, etc.

conjunctions that combine sentence parts

• • coordinating conjunction
  • subordinating conjunction (SWABI)

conjunctions that coordinate or conjoin ideas

• • conjunctive adverb
• see
  • Parts of speech#Conjunction for more on conjunctions

Introductory clauses & phrases

introductory clause

• provides information or context to set up a dominant clause
• = a dependent clause (does not stand as a complete sentence)
• usually begin with a subordinating conjunction
  • ex. "If you want to do well on the test, use the study guide"

Modifiers

• modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence
• modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader
• types of modifiers
  • adjectives
  • prepositions
    • prepositional phrases
  • adverbs
  • verbs as modifiers
    • participle phrase
• other
  • adjective clause
  • infinitive phrase
  • adverbial clause
  • absolute phrase
  • Nouns as modifiers

intensifiers

• enhance or strengthen the meaning of a word
  • (opposite of qualifiers which limit the meaning of a word)
• intensifiers are adverbs (which modify verbs and adjectives), such as "he ran very fast" or "he was very late"
• intensifiers can also act as adjectives in order to intensify an noun,
  • as in "a total lie"
• types of intensifiers:
  • positive intensifiers:
    • very, extremely, absolutely, greatly, totally, highly, particularly, seriously, etc.
  • negative intensifiers:
    • never, at all, dangerously, never, etc.
  • intensifiers that can be both positive or negative:
    • awfully, completely

Sources for modifiers, qualifiers & intensifiers

• Modifiers (Walden.edu)]
• Modifiers Intensifiers, Qualifiers (My English Teacher)]
• [Intensifiers (Britishcouncil.org)]
• [Intensifier (Grammar-Monster.com)]
• for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)

qualifiers

• qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word
• types of qualifiers:

>> to do

modifier errors: dangling modifiers

• a modifier that has no word or phrase to modify
  • i.e., it stands by itself, which is inherently illogical since a modifier must have something to modify
  • usually, dangling modifiers occur with participial phrases (using the -ing present participle) or prepositional phrases
  • dangling modifiers frequently mistake the target of the modification, such as modifying one thing, then discussing another
  • examples:
  • wrong: While playing around, it was late
    • correct: While playing around, I noticed it was late"
  • wrong: Driving to school, I forgot my homework
    • correct: Driving to school, I realized I forgot my homework

modifier errors: misplaced modifiers

• a modifier that is next to or seemingly modifies the word or phrase
• examples.
  • wrong: The student failed the test in the back of the class
    • correct: The student in the back of the class failed the test
  • wrong: The teacher gave a grade to the student that was really good
    • correct: The teacher gave a really good grade to the student

modifier errors: pre and post adverbs

• modifier placement can change the meaning of a sentence:
• example:
  • The student almost failed every test
  • v. The student failed almost every test
    • here the modifier "almost" is an adverb
  • The mechanic only works on trucks on Tuesdays
    • = on Tuesdays the mechanic works on trucks and nothing else
  • v. The mechanic works on trucks only on Tuesdays
    • = it is only on Tuesdays that the mechanic will work on trucks (but might also work on cars, as well)

Sentence diagramming

The diagrammed sentence is build around the core subject-verb

• diagraming sentences means identifying word and sentence parts
  • and arranging them according to their relationship to the main clause/s of the sentence
• sentence diagrams help students to understand the grammatical mechanics of a sentence
• while not taught in schools, sentence diagramming can be empowering
• see Parts of Speech
• here for a diagrammed sentence showing noun phrases:
  • Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements (parentingpatch.com)
  • Click here for diagrammed sentence image (parentingpatch.com)

vocabulary & definitions

Denotation and Connotation

• denotation = literal meaning of a word
• connotation = associations wit words
  • generally positive or negative associations