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'''Parts of Speech'''
'''Parts of Speech'''
* "part" = portion or role
* "part" = portion or role
* "speech" = verbal communication
* "speech" = verbal communication
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*[[Category:Grammar]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] Abbreviations used in this article:
*[[Category:Grammar]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] Abbreviations used in this article:
** IC = "independent clause"
** IC = "independent [[Vocabulary:Clause|clause]]"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** Phr = "[[Vocabulary:Phrase|phrase]]"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
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=== nouns and verbs as adjectives ===
=== nouns and verbs as adjectives ===
* when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
* when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
** note that they act like but are not adjectives
** see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
** see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
*** ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"  
*** ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"  
** see "past participle" under Verbs
** see "past participle" under Verbs
*** ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb
*** ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb
=== adjectives following subject-verb ===  
=== adjectives following subject-verb (linking verb) ===  
* sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
* sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
** ex. "Josephus felt sad"
** ex. "Josephus felt sad"
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*** if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
*** if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
**** "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt  
**** "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt  
** verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
* verbs that connect an adjective to a subject are called "linking verbs"
** linking verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
*** ''be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem''
*** ''be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem''
* these sentences, therefore do not have objects (nouns)
* these sentences, therefore do not have objects (nouns)
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**** "attorneys general"
**** "attorneys general"
***** *note that "compound words" can be either "open", as in "boy scout" or full moon" or closed, as in "bullfrog" or "mailbox" or hyphenated, as in "long-term" or "on-campus"
***** *note that "compound words" can be either "open", as in "boy scout" or full moon" or closed, as in "bullfrog" or "mailbox" or hyphenated, as in "long-term" or "on-campus"
=== compound adjectives ===
* when a noun is modified by two or more adjectives, the adjectives may be separated by a comma, depending on what the adjective is modifying
==== coordinate adjectives ====
* multiple adjectives that each independently modify the noun
** ''the big, red ball''
* the comma separating the coordinate adjectives could be replaced by the coordinating conjunction "and"
** ''the big and red ball''
** = the ball is both big and red
==== cumulative adjectives ====
* multiple adjectives that each are modified by the prior adjective
** ''the big red ball'' = the red ball is big
*** (might be used to distinguish the ''big red ball'' from a ''small red ball)''


== Adverb ==
== Adverb ==
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==== Appositive nouns & phrases ====
==== Appositive nouns & phrases ====
* = a noun that is next to another noun to add information to it
* = a noun that is next to another noun to add information to or to explain it
** may be intermixed with modifiers (adjectives, prepositions)
** may be intermixed with modifiers (adjectives, prepositions)
** distinct from an attributive noun in that the appositive noun clarifies but is not acting as an adjective
** distinct from an attributive noun in that the appositive noun clarifies but is not acting as an adjective
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* compound prepositions:
* compound prepositions:
** ''ahead of, apart from, by means of, due to, from above (etc.) , in excess of, in front of, in regard to, prior to, similar to, with reference to, etc.''
** ''ahead of, apart from, by means of, due to, from above (etc.) , in excess of, in front of, in regard to, prior to, similar to, with reference to, etc.''
* categories of prepositions:
 
{| class="wikitable"
=== categories of prepositions ===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Some types or categories of prepositions
|+ Some types or categories of prepositions
|'''Prepositions of...'''
|'''Prepositions of...'''
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|-
|-
| direction or movement
| direction or movement
| ||''at, between, for, into, onto''
| ||''along, at, between, for, into, onto''
|
|
|-
|-
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|relationship or purpose
|relationship or purpose
|
|
|for, in relation to, like, regarding, with, without
|''for, in relation to, like, regarding, with, without''
|for learning, without laughing
|for learning, without laughing
|-
|accompaniment, together, in conjunction
|common or coordinated activity or purpose
|with,
|
|-
|-
|ownership
|ownership
|owned, created  
|owned, created  
|by, of,  
|''by, of''
|
|-
|origin
|source
|''from, of''
|
|
|-
|-
|focus of attention
|focus of attention or topic
|
|
|regarding, to,
|''about, regarding, to''
|He apologized to her
|He apologized to her
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Preposition comparisons per category & use
|+ Preposition comparisons per category & use
| about|| place ||near, within || ''about there, moving about''
| about|| place ||near, within || ''about there, moving about''
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* See [[Preposition definitions and use]]<br />
* See [[Preposition definitions and use]]<br />


click EXPAND for list of prepositions:
=== List of prepositions ===
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Quick list of (single word) prepositions
|+ Quick list of (single word) prepositions
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|}
|}
</div>
 
=== Select preposition definitions & use ===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+Select preposition definitions and examples
!Preposition
!Expresses
!Example
!Notes
|-
|about
|
|
|
|-
|at
|
|
|
|-
|by
|
|
|
|-
|for
|
|
|
|-
|from
|
|
|
|-
|of
|
|
|
|-
|on
|
|
|
|-
|to
|
|
|"to" can also be a "particle" or "infinitive marker"
 
* creates an infinitive: "to go"
* so not to be confused with a preposition
|-
|up
|heading above or upwards
|''He crept up the stairs''
|"up" can also be an adjective, adverb, noun or particle.
 
* * adjective, so when we say, "the sky is up" or "the system is up and running" it is not a preposition
 
* adverb: "She picked it up"
* noun: "What's up?"
* particle: "I looked it up," "The DJ turned up the music"
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''with'''
|accompanying, alongside, together
|''Stevie went with Joey to class''
 
''Coffeecake goes with coffee''
|
|-
|connected
|''The sofa & chair are with each other''
|
|-
|agreement
|''I agree with you (also "I am with you")''
|
|-
|method
|''I fixed my phone with duct tape''
|
|-
|note: see 1/13/23 Blair class
|
|
|
|}
 
* See
* See
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Preposition_and_postposition|Preposition and postposition (wiki)]]]
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Preposition_and_postposition|Preposition and postposition (wiki)]]]
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=== prepositional phrase ===
=== prepositional phrase ===
* = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
* = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
* = dependent clauses, so are separated from a main or dominant clause by a comma
** (a phrase = two or more words that do not contain a subject + verb)
* prepositional phrases that modify verbs are called ""adverbial phrases"  
* ex.: ''the book is '''on the table'''''
* see
** "on" = preposition
** [[https://writer.com/blog/prepositional-phrase/ Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]]
** "table" = object of the preposition, "on"
=== other exceptions ===
** "on the table" = prepositional phrase
 
=== prepositional phrases & verb types ===
* '''transitive verb''' = must be accompanied by an object
** the preposition will not be the direct object
*** ''I give a bone '''to the dog'''''
* '''intransitive verb''' = does not take an object
** the preposition will act as an adverb (modifier) of the intransitive verb:
*** He waits '''''for the bus'''''
**** the prepositional phrase doesn't match the subject; instead if modifies the verb "waits"
* '''linking verb''' = does not need an object
** linking verbs include ''is, become, seem, smell'', etc.
*** they do not take an adverb
**** i.e., "You seem happily" makes no sense
**** instead, "You seem happy"
***** "happy" = '''subject complement adjective'''
*** linking verbs "link" to a noun or adjective
**** "I feel happy" or "He is a doctor"
** as a modifier the '''prepositional phrase''' adds additional information to the '''subject complement noun'''
*** ''I feel happy '''about my test'''''
*** ''He is a doctor '''in Nebraska'''''
 
=== prepositional phrase as modifier ===
* prepositional phrases act like adjectives or adverbs to modify nouns or verbs
** therefore, they are not separated from the word they modify by punctuation
** ex. ''The player ran onto the field''
*** as opposed to ''The player, ran onto the field''
**** = incorrect comma that separates the verb "ran" from the prepositional phrase "onto the field"
 
==== modify a noun (as an adjective) ====
* ''The best books '''in the library''' are in the adventure section''
** note that there is no punctuation separating "books" from the modifying prepositional phrase, "in the library"
** also called an "adjective phrase" or "adjective prepositional phrase
 
==== modify a verb (as an adverb): ====
* ''He stepped onto the porch''
** "onto the porch" describes how "he stepped"
** so the prepositional phrase acts like an adverb
** sometimes called an "adverbial phrase"
 
==== as introductory phrase ====
 
* prepositional phrases are commonly used to introduce information about the clause that follows
** ex. ''On Tuesdays, I have night classes''
 
==== as noun phrase ====
* prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
* prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
** and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
** and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
*** "During the summer is the best time to play outside"
*** ''During the summer is the best time to play outside''
*** "After I exercise is when I feel best"
*** ''After I exercise is when I feel best''
* see:
* Sources:
** [https://writer.com/blog/prepositional-phrase/ Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]
** [https://www.englishgrammar101.com/module-7/prepositions/lesson-6/prepositional-phrases-as-nouns Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)]
** [https://www.englishgrammar101.com/module-7/prepositions/lesson-6/prepositional-phrases-as-nouns Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)]
** [https://www.brighthubeducation.com/english-homework-help/46995-the-nominal-functions-of-prepositions-and-prepositional-phrases/ How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)]
** [https://www.brighthubeducation.com/english-homework-help/46995-the-nominal-functions-of-prepositions-and-prepositional-phrases/ How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)]
** [https://blog.inkforall.com/types-of-prepositions Types of Prepositions (inkforall.com)]
** [https://blog.inkforall.com/types-of-prepositions Types of Prepositions (inkforall.com)]


=== Prepositions as adverbs & subordinating conjunctions ===
=== "overlapping" grammatical roles for prepositions ===
* prepositions and verb types:
* some words and grammar forms "overlap" or operate in or as multiple grammatical forms
** '''transitive verb''' = must be accompanied by an object
 
*** the preposition will not be the direct object
===== preposition as subordinating conjunction =====
**** ''I give a bone '''to the dog'''''
* = a "conjunctive preposition"
** '''intransitive verb''' = does not take an object
* which is also a "subordinating conjunction"
*** the preposition will act as an adverb (modifier) of the intransitive verb:
** compare: ''I got my license '''before last year'''''  
**** He waits '''''for the bus'''''
*** before= preposition that defines when "I went to school"
***** the prepositional phrase doesn't match the subject; instead if modifies the verb "waits"
** to: ''I got my license '''before last year ended'''''  
** '''linking verb''' = does not need an object
*** before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first
*** linking verbs include ''is, become, seem, smell'', etc.
** so we can view "before" as '''subordinating''' the clause, "last year ended,"
**** they do not take an adverb
*** it is a clause because it contains a subject (year) and verb ("ended)
***** i.e., "You seem happily" makes no sense
*** and the preposition "before" "subordinates
***** instead, "You seem happy"
*** however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a [[#subordinating conjunction]].
****** "happy" = '''subject complement adjective'''
** more examples:
**** linking verbs "link" to a noun or adjective
*** ''She paid the bill after dinner''vs:
***** "I feel happy" or "He is a doctor"
**** ''She paid the bill after she ate dinner''
*** as a modifier the prepositional phrase adds additional information to the '''subject complement noun'''
*** ''He played like a pro''vs.
**** ''I feel happy '''about my test'''''
**** ''He played like he was a pro''
**** ''He is a doctor '''in Nebraska'''''
 
* "overlapping" grammatical roles for prepositions
==== "intransitive preposition" ====
** some words and grammar forms "overlap" or operate in or as multiple grammatical forms
* = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
* "intransitive preposition"
* intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
** = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
* i.e., they act as '''adverb modifiers''' or '''subject complements'''
** intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
 
** i.e., they act as '''adverb modifiers''' or '''subject complements'''
* most dictionaries qualify '''intransitive prepositions''' as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
* most dictionaries qualify intransitive prepositions as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
** ex. of intransitive preposition: ''They went ahead'' or ''The dog is outside''
** ex. of intransitive preposition: "They went ahead" or "The dog is outside"
** with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions:  
** with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions:  
*** "They went ahead of the others" or "The dog is outside the fence"
*** ''They went ahead of the others'' or ''The dog is outside the fence''
* overlap of prepositions and subordinating conjunctions
* = a "conjunctive preposition"
** ex.: "I got my license before last year" (before= preposition that defines when "I went to school")
** vs.: "I got my license before last year ended" (before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first)
** we can view "before" as subordinating the phrase, "last year ended," which is technically a complete thought and sentence
** however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a [[#subordinating conjunction]].
** ex.: "She paid the bill after dinner"
** vs.: "She paid the bill after she ate dinner"
** ex.: "He played like a pro"
** vs.: "He played like he was a pro"


=== Prepositions as "particle" (w/o object complement)===
=== Preposition as "particle" (w/o object complement)===
* ''particles'' are words that don't fit into the general categories of parts of speech
* ''particles'' are words that don't fit into the general categories of parts of speech
** the most common are prepositions that do not have an object
** the most common are prepositions that do not have an object
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*** ''I learned how to build it''
*** ''I learned how to build it''
**** "to build" is the noun object of the verb "learned"
**** "to build" is the noun object of the verb "learned"
==== Resources ====
* [[Non-finite verbs & the "verbiness" of participles gerunds infinitives worksheet]]


=== subjunctive mood ===
=== subjunctive mood ===
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