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<ul><li>{{#tip-text:laissez-faire| from French for "to leave alone"; used as reference to government non-intervention in the economy, usually regarding corporations; "laissez-faire" has a negative connotation, whereas supporters of government non-interference in the economy refer to that point of view as "libertarian"}}<li>landmark court case<li>legitimacy</ul>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:laissez-faire| from French for "to leave alone"; used as reference to government non-intervention in the economy, usually regarding corporations; "laissez-faire" has a negative connotation, whereas supporters of government non-interference in the economy refer to that point of view as "libertarian"}}<li>landmark court case<li>legitimacy</ul>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:mercantilism| colonial mother-country policy of controlling or regulating trade so as to require that colonial possessions only purchase from and sell to the mother country, with the aim to maintain a trade-surplus for the mother country; the philosophy was that economic "stakeholders" were home-country farms, businesses, and land owners, and therefore colonial holdings were to serve and benefit those interests}}<li>{{#tip-text:nativism| "ethnocentric" belief in the dominant ethnicity and culture of a nation, particularly as regards immigration (called "chauvanisme" in French)}}</ul>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:mercantilism| colonial mother-country policy of controlling or regulating trade so as to require that colonial possessions only purchase from and sell to the mother country, with the aim to maintain a trade-surplus for the mother country; the philosophy was that economic "stakeholders" were home-country farms, businesses, and land owners, and therefore colonial holdings were to serve and benefit those interests}}<li>{{#tip-text:nativism| "ethnocentric" belief in the dominant ethnicity and culture of a nation, particularly as regards immigration (called "chauvanisme" in French)}}</ul>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:nullify / nullification| the theory that since the Constitution is a "compact" (agreement) of the states, the authority to withhold that agreement or parts of it remains with the states;
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:nullify / nullification| the theory or assertion that since the Constitution is a "compact" (agreement) of the states, the authority to withhold that agreement or parts of it remains with the states; thus states can "nullify" or annul (delete, erase, disregard) a or part of a federal law; nullification violates the "Supremacy Clause" of the Constitution (found in Article VI that states that all federal law will be "supreme" over state law); the "Nullification Crisis" occurred in 1832 when South Carolina refused to abide to the federal tariff laws of 1828 and 1832; other nullification crises include the 1798 Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions, which asserted the power of nullification over Adams-era and just before the outbreak of the Civil War when some southern states passed laws "nullifying" federal laws, and in the 1950s when several southern states refused to desegregate public schools and passed laws refusing to follow the ''Brown v. Board of Education'' Supreme Court decision (1954)}}</ul></li>
as in the "Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions" and the Nullification Crisis of 1830s)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Old World v. New World| "Old" = Europe; "New" = Americas}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Old World v. New World| "Old" = Europe; "New" = Americas}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:political|from Greek ''polis'' for "city"; governance or organization of a group of people; operates at all levels, as in local, state or national "politics" }}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:political|from Greek ''polis'' for "city"; governance or organization of a group of people; operates at all levels, as in local, state or national "politics" }}</ul></li>
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<ul><li>{{#tip-text:salutary neglect|a phrase coined during the Revolutionary period by British politician and philosopher Edmund Burke who argued that the "neglect" of the colonies exercised by the British government prior to the French-Indian War was "salutary", or healthy; and that the post-French-Indian War interventions in the colonies were not productive for either side; Burke was sympathetic to the Colonial cause, but did not overtly align himself with them}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:salutary neglect|a phrase coined during the Revolutionary period by British politician and philosopher Edmund Burke who argued that the "neglect" of the colonies exercised by the British government prior to the French-Indian War was "salutary", or healthy; and that the post-French-Indian War interventions in the colonies were not productive for either side; Burke was sympathetic to the Colonial cause, but did not overtly align himself with them}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:slave codes|local and colonial rules and laws that limited the rights and economic liberties of slaves and free blacks; the codes were first imposed in Barbados and Jamaica, and first adopted in Virginia and South Carolina, then spread to other colonies; the codes limited rights of blacks and reduced or annulled penalties on whites who abused or murdered blacks; restrictions on slavves and blacks included not recognizing baptism, prohibiting teaching slaves to read, and limiting their movement; the British government did not impose any slave codes upon the colonies, although it allowed them in the colonies}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:slave codes|local and colonial rules and laws that limited the rights and economic liberties of slaves and free blacks; the codes were first imposed in Barbados and Jamaica, and first adopted in Virginia and South Carolina, then spread to other colonies; the codes limited rights of blacks and reduced or annulled penalties on whites who abused or murdered blacks; restrictions on slavves and blacks included not recognizing baptism, prohibiting teaching slaves to read, and limiting their movement; the British government did not impose any slave codes upon the colonies, although it allowed them in the colonies}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Penn|}}</ul></li>
[[File:Penncolony.png|thumb|Map of the Province of Pennsylvania|alt=Map of the Province of Pennsylvania]]
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Penn| Quaker English noble who in 1681 was granted extensive landholdings in the mid-Atlantic ("the Province of Pennsylvania") to pay debts due to his father from King Charles II. As a "propriety" colony, Penn and his descendants ruled Pennsylvania until the American Revolution (and when Delaware was created as a separate state); Penn organized the government under the "Frame of Government of Pennsylvania," an important document in colonial self-governance, granting legislative powers to an assembly made up of "inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors" of the colony; the Penn family was largely an "absentee landlord" (not living there) and profited from rents and taxes collected on their lands, which was resented by residents, especially non-Quaker immigrants}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:yeoman|independent farmers and landowners, who lived and farmed independently but without amassing great wealth; the "yeoman society" contrasted with the legacies of Old World feudal structures in which great landowners had tenant farmers; the yeoman ideal was independence, land ownership and local self-government, especially in New England; in Virginia the yeoman farmers contrasted with and political opposed plantation owners}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:yeoman|independent farmers and landowners, who lived and farmed independently but without amassing great wealth; the "yeoman society" contrasted with the legacies of Old World feudal structures in which great landowners had tenant farmers; the yeoman ideal was independence, land ownership and local self-government, especially in New England; in Virginia the yeoman farmers contrasted with and political opposed plantation owners}}</ul></li>
</div><br>
</div><br>
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== French Indian War (Seven Years War) ==
== French Indian War (Seven Years War) ==
1754-1763
1754-1763
=== Origins and indirect causes of the French-Indian War ===
* <u>Long term causes</u>:
** French colonial expansion across the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley and along the Mississippi River
** English colonial expansion in western New York and Pennsylvania
* Indirect causes:
** English v. French rivalry over easter and central North American lands and trade routes
** Treaty of Utrecht, 1713: France ceded Nova Scotia to the British and abandoned its claims to Newfoundland
** Indian rivalries and warfare, especially between French-aligned Algonquins and British-aligned Iroquois tribes and nations
== Direct causes of the French-Indian War ===
* the immediate cause of the war was the growing presence of English colonials across the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Valley
* the immediate cause of the war was the growing presence of English colonials across the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Valley
** the French and their Indian allies opposed these settlements
** the French and their Indian allies opposed these settlements
** 1753-54: Virginia militia expeditions sent to challenge French expansion in the Ohio Valley via building of a series of forts
* May 1754: fighting breaks out at Ft. Duquesne and Ft. Necessity
** a site of considerable contention was Fort Duquesne at present-day Pittsburg, as the location was at the confluence of two major rivers leading into the Ohio River
** a site of considerable contention was Fort Duquesne at present-day Pittsburg, as the location was at the confluence of two major rivers leading into the Ohio River
* sparked by an unsuccessful British and colonial attacks on French forts in Pennsylvania
* sparked by an unsuccessful British and colonial attacks on French forts in Pennsylvania
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[[File:1754 French and Indian War.png|thumb|<small>French and British positions at the start of the War British North America and New France and Allies. This Map also shows both the Iroquois and Wabanaki Confederacies, who were both influential in the war on the British and French sides respectively.</small>]]
[[File:1754 French and Indian War.png|thumb|<small>French and British positions at the start of the War British North America and New France and Allies. This Map also shows both the Iroquois and Wabanaki Confederacies, who were both influential in the war on the British and French sides respectively.</small>]]
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Albany Conference, 1754|or Albany Congress; at the start of the French-Indian War, a gathering of representatives of seven, northeastern colonial legislatures in Albany , New York, with the purpose to manage relations with Indian tribes and create collective defense against the French; Albany was at the time an important city but "western" in that it was not coastal; although called for by Great Britain with the specific goal of mending relations with the Iroquois Confederacy in order to fend against the French and their Indian allies, the Conference was the first convention of colonial legislatures; the Congress adopted Benjamin Franklin's "Albany Plan", but it was rejected by the British and colonial governments}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Albany Conference, 1754|or Albany Congress; at the start of the French-Indian War, a gathering of representatives of seven, northeastern colonial legislatures in Albany , New York, with the purpose to manage relations with Indian tribes and create collective defense against the French; Albany was at the time an important city but "western" in that it was not coastal; although called for by Great Britain with the specific goal of mending relations with the Iroquois Confederacy in order to fend against the French and their Indian allies, the Conference was the first convention of colonial legislatures; the Congress adopted Benjamin Franklin's "Albany Plan", but it was rejected by the British and colonial governments}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Albany Plan|proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the 1854 Albany Congress to create a central colonial government that would have powers of treaty-making, taxation, and self-defense; the Albany Plan is considered a precursor to the Articles of Confederation}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Albany Plan| proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the 1854 Albany Congress to create a central colonial government that would have powers of treaty-making, taxation, and self-defense; the Albany Plan is considered a precursor to the Articles of Confederation}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Algonquian Indians|with associated Great Lakes region tribes, such as the Huron, allied with the French through trade and control of trade routes; the Algonquian and allied tribes were able to disrupt British and fought against British rule (see Pontiac's Rebellion), but eventually submitted to British rule in Canada}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Algonquian Indians| with associated Great Lakes region tribes, such as the Huron, allied with the French through trade and control of trade routes; the Algonquian and allied tribes were able to disrupt British and fought against British rule (see Pontiac's Rebellion), but eventually submitted to British rule in Canada}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Annus Mirabilis of 1759|"Wonderful Year" of 1759 during which the British won significant victories over France and its allies in Europe and the New World: the war started badly for Britain (even leading to fears of a French invasion of England), but under leadership of William Pitt the Elder, in 1759 Britain won battles in Germany, India, Canada capture of Quebec) and in the Caribbean(notably M). The war continued through 1762 (a second "Annus Mirabilis" for the British), at which point both sides were depleted financially and militarily, but with Britain having seized the upper hand across the globe.}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Annus Mirabilis of 1759| "Wonderful Year" of 1759 during which the British won significant victories over France and its allies in Europe and the New World: the war started badly for Britain (even leading to fears of a French invasion of England), but under leadership of William Pitt the Elder, in 1759 Britain won battles in Germany, India, Canada capture of Quebec) and in the Caribbean(notably M). The war continued through 1762 (a second "Annus Mirabilis" for the British), at which point both sides were depleted financially and militarily, but with Britain having seized the upper hand across the globe.}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Fort Duquesne|French fort at modern Pittsburg where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join as they joint and become the Ohio River; the location provided control of trade and movement in the region that was contested by English and French colonial claims}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Fort Duquesne| French fort at modern Pittsburg where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join as they joint and become the Ohio River; the location provided control of trade and movement in the region that was contested by English and French colonial claims}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Iroquois Confederacy|allied with the British, but under pressure from constant westward push of colonials; the Iroquois were aligned with the British more to assist their attacks against their Algonquian enemies, whom they pushed westward, then for mutual benefit of trade, etc., as was the case with the French and their Indian allies}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Iroquois Confederacy| allied with the British, but under pressure from constant westward push of colonials; the Iroquois were aligned with the British more to assist their attacks against their Algonquian enemies, whom they pushed westward, then for mutual benefit of trade, etc., as was the case with the French and their Indian allies}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Proclamation of 1763|Essentially a policy statement, not a law, King George III's "proclamation" to the American colonies asserted British rule over all the pre-existing and new colonial possessions following the Treaty of Paris (1763); most importantly, the King forbade white colonials from settling to the west of the Appalachians, reserving that land for the Indians (over the next few years, treaties with the tribes allocated portions of those lands to colonial settlement); the Proclamation was largely in response to Pontiac's Rebellion; note that a factor in continued Western expansion over the mountains was that American officers were paid in "land warrants", which, like George Washington, they exercised over the mountains}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Ohio Company of 1748|in 1748 the Ohio Company received Royal land grant of 200,000 acres in the Ohio Valley, which included parts of modern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia; the Company was owned by wealthy Virginia planters and London Merchants, and served as an opening for American colonial expansion across the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio Valley, which was land disputed by the French; the Company was required to build and maintain a fort to protect against the French and Indians, which helped spark the French-Indian War)}}</ul><li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Treaty of Paris of 1763|by 1762, British gains across the world forced the French to capitulate; depleted, as well the British seized the opportunity to secure new territories, while also giving up others that were less strategically important to them (such as French sugar growing colonies, which British merchants wanted to remain in French hands to maintain their monopolistic control over trade with them); in North America, Britain now controlled all lands east of the Mississippi River, including "Spanish Florida" (everything west of the MS River remained in Spanish control)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Proclamation of 1763| essentially a policy statement, not a law, King George III's "proclamation" to the American colonies asserted British rule over all the pre-existing and new colonial possessions following the Treaty of Paris (1763); most importantly, the King forbade white colonials from settling to the west of the Appalachians, reserving that land for the Indians (over the next few years, treaties with the tribes allocated portions of those lands to colonial settlement); the Proclamation was largely in response to Pontiac's Rebellion; note that a factor in continued Western expansion over the mountains was that American officers were paid in "land warrants", which, like George Washington, they exercised over the mountains}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Paxton Boys|Pennsylvanian settlers, mostly Scotch-Irish, who had before the war objected to Quaker leadership that refused their demands to expel Indians; after the French-Indian War, in 1763, the Paxton Boys massacred a group of Indians and seized their land; the Governor sought to prosecute them, but about 250 armed settlers marched on Philadelphia in protest; Benjamin Franklin met them along the way and arranged a truce; these settlers long resented Quaker rule of Pennsylvania, as the Quakers refused to protect settlers against Indian attack, all the while Penn-family rule was more concerned with land ownership and "rents" than with the interests of the settlers)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Treaty of Paris of 1763| by 1762, British gains across the world forced the French to capitulate; depleted, as well the British seized the opportunity to secure new territories, while also giving up others that were less strategically important to them (such as French sugar growing colonies, which British merchants wanted to remain in French hands to maintain their monopolistic control over trade with them); in North America, Britain now controlled all lands east of the Mississippi River, including "Spanish Florida" (everything west of the MS River remained in Spanish control)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Paxton Boys| Pennsylvanian settlers, mostly Scotch-Irish, who had before the war objected to Quaker leadership that refused their demands to expel Indians; after the French-Indian War, in 1763, the Paxton Boys massacred a group of Indians and seized their land; the Governor sought to prosecute them, but about 250 armed settlers marched on Philadelphia in protest; Benjamin Franklin met them along the way and arranged a truce; these settlers long resented Quaker rule of Pennsylvania, as the Quakers refused to protect settlers against Indian attack, all the while Penn-family rule was more concerned with land ownership and "rents" than with the interests of the settlers)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Pitt|British Cabinet minister and leader who led Britain to victory in the Seven Years War; Pitt was Prime Minister, 1766-1768, and, growing old and soon lost power; Pitt defended British powers over the colonies but argued that the Stamp Act was unjust and illegitimately imposed "internal taxes" on the colonies; his opposition to the Act led to its repeal}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Pitt|British Cabinet minister and leader who led Britain to victory in the Seven Years War; Pitt was Prime Minister, 1766-1768, and, growing old and soon lost power; Pitt defended British powers over the colonies but argued that the Stamp Act was unjust and illegitimately imposed "internal taxes" on the colonies; his opposition to the Act led to its repeal}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Regulators|similar to the Paxton Boys, rural, "western" (west of the coast) settlers in South Carolina, mostly Scottish and English, who demanded land, lower taxes, and greater representation in the colony's Assembly; during the French-Indian War, these settlers fought Cherokee tribes mostly for land, and organized to assert their rights through "vigilantism" (citizen policing/militia without public authority)}}</ul>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Regulators|similar to the Paxton Boys, rural, "western" (west of the coast) settlers in South Carolina, mostly Scottish and English, who demanded land, lower taxes, and greater representation in the colony's Assembly; during the French-Indian War, these settlers fought Cherokee tribes mostly for land, and organized to assert their rights through "vigilantism" (citizen policing/militia without public authority)}}</ul>
=== Origins of the French-Indian War ===
* Indirect causes:
** English v. French rivalry over easter and central North American lands and trade routes
** Treaty of Utrecht, 1713: France ceded Nova Scotia to the British and abandoned its claims to Newfoundland
** Indian rivalries and warfare, especially between French-aligned Algonquins and British-aligned Iroquois tribes and nations
* <u>Long term causes</u>:
** French colonial expansion across the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley and along the Mississippi River
** English colonial expansion in western New York and Pennsylvania
** <ul><li>{{#tip-text:Ohio Company of 1748|in 1748 the Ohio Company received Royal land grant of 200,000 acres in the Ohio Valley, which included parts of modern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia; the Company was owned by wealthy Virginia planters and London Merchants, and served as an opening for American colonial expansion across the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio Valley, which was land disputed by the French; the Company was required to build and maintain a fort to protect against the French and Indians, which helped spark the French-Indian War)}}</ul>
<li>: a land grant of 1748 which included land claimed by France; as a result of the grant, numerous surveyors and militia expeditions were sent to explore, map and open the lands for American settlement, including to build a fort that played an important part in the outbreak of the French-Indian War.
* <u>Direct causes</u>:
** 1753-54: Virginia militia expeditions sent to challenge French expansion in the Ohio Valley via building of a series of forts
** May 1754: fighting breaks out at Ft. Duquesne and Ft. Necessity
<br>
--------------------
--------------------
</div></div>
<div style="clear:both;"></div>
== American Revolution ==
== American Revolution ==
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| Example || Example
| Example || Example
|}
|}
Notes on the American Revolution
Notes on the American Revolution
* the "American Revolution" refers generally to the period between the French-Indian War and, either the breakout (1775/76) or end of the Revolutionary War (1781/83)
* the "American Revolution" refers generally to the period between the French-Indian War and, either the breakout (1775/76) or end of the Revolutionary War (1781/83)
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=== Revolutionary War flowchart ===
=== Revolutionary War flowchart ===
{{#mermaid:flowchart LR
{{#mermaid:flowchart LR
CO[Colonial Organization]-->CC1[1774: First Continential Congress]
CC[Committee on Correspondence]-->CO[Colonial Organization]-->PR[Colonial boycotts and protests]
CP[Colonial Protests]--anti-Parliament-->TP[1775: Paine's Comon Sense]--anti-King-->DI[1776: Declaration of Independence]
TP[Boston Tea Party]-->IN[Intolerable Acts]-->CC1[1774: First Continental Congress, 1774]
LX[Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 1775]-->CC2[Second Continental Congress]-->WAS[Formation of Continental Army with George Washington as Commander]
}}
{{#mermaid:flowchart LR
CP[Colonial Protests]--anti-Parliament-->TP[1775: Paine's Common Sense]--anti-King-->DI[1776: Declaration of Independence]
}}
}}
-------------
-------------
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<ul><li>{{#tip-text:judicial review|the idea that the courts have the power to settled disputes, including over the meaning of laws and the Constitution; see Marbury v. Madison}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:judicial review|the idea that the courts have the power to settled disputes, including over the meaning of laws and the Constitution; see Marbury v. Madison}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Judiciary Act of 1789|established the structure of the federal courts and, most importantly, gave the Supreme Court appellate power, or the to decide on cases arising in state courts or between states, thus ensuring the supremacy of the Supreme Court over state courts}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Judiciary Act of 1789|established the structure of the federal courts and, most importantly, gave the Supreme Court appellate power, or the to decide on cases arising in state courts or between states, thus ensuring the supremacy of the Supreme Court over state courts}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:British-French conflict & Napoleonic Wars|in 1792, the new French Republic attacked Austria and Netherlands, and in 1795 Prussia and Italy; by the Napoleon Bonaparte had taken control of the French Army and began his attempted conquest of all of Europe; the wars united the French, who felt threatened by and who in turn threatened the monarchs of Europe; the British opposed the French expansionism, especially through its superior Navy, and, eventually, on land during the Napoleonic Wars; Americans were politically divided in their sympathies for France or Britain, nominally between Jefferson (for France) v. Adams/Hamilton (for Britain)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:impressment|}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Midnight Appointments|just before close of his presidency, Adams made last minute appointments of federal officers and magistrates, including that of John Marshall to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; Jeffersonians mocked the appointments as "Midnight Judges"; and refused to deliver any remaining appointments when he took office, including that of William Marbury}}</ul>
</div>
</div>
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<div style="clear:both;"></div>
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ST1[States]-->FD[Federal Government]
ST1[States]-->FD[Federal Government]
}}
}}
=== For / Against National Bank ===
=== For / Against National Bank ===
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== Adams presidency ==
While Adams was elected Washington's Vice President for both terms, and Adams was elected President in 17986 by
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:British-French conflict & Napoleonic Wars|in 1792, the new French Republic attacked Austria and Netherlands, and in 1795 Prussia and Italy; by the Napoleon Bonaparte had taken control of the French Army and began his attempted conquest of all of Europe; the wars united the French, who felt threatened by and who in turn threatened the monarchs of Europe; the British opposed the French expansionism, especially through its superior Navy, and, eventually, on land during the Napoleonic Wars; Americans were politically divided in their sympathies for France or Britain, nominally between Jefferson (for France) v. Adams/Hamilton (for Britain)}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:impressment|}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Midnight Appointments| just before close of his presidency, Adams made last minute appointments of federal officers and magistrates, including that of John Marshall to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; Jeffersonians mocked the appointments as "Midnight Judges"; and refused to deliver any remaining appointments when he took office, including that of William Marbury}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Principles of '98| reference to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 that protested the extension of federal powers to enforce the Alien and Sedition Acts; the Principles of '98 were never officially adopted by any state, and several states specifically objected to them, upholding the Supremacy Clause, especially regarding the power of the Supreme Court to rule on federal law}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions| in opposition to the Alien and Sedition acts, the states of Virginia and Kentucky issued statements condemning the Acts and calling them unconstitutional; authored in secret by Madison and Jefferson, the Resolutions outlined the theory of nullification that the Federal government was a compact of states, so the states could withhold their agreement to that or part of that compact; it also argued that the federal government only had the power to enforce crimes specifically outlined in the Constitution (which much of the Alien and Sedition Acts exceeded); George Washington was appalled by the Resolutions, and presciently warned that if pursued they would lead to dissolution of the union}}</ul></li>
</div>
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<div style="clear:both;"></div>
== Jefferson era ==
== Jefferson era ==
* Aaron Burr
* Louisiana Purchase
* Louisiana Purchase
* Revolution of 1800:
== Marshall Court ==
* Marbury v. Madison (1804)
* Marbury v. Madison (1804)
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:John Marshall|prominant Federalist, apponted as Chief Justice by Adams in the "midnight appointments" at the end of the Adams' presidency; Marshall supported "judicial review" which was fully established in ''Marbury v. Madison''}}</ul></li>
* McColloch v. Maryland (1819)
* McColloch v. Maryland (1819)
* Dartmouth v New Hampshire
* nullification
< others
* Revolution of 1800:
** Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
* War of 1812
* Whigs
== Madison & Monroe ==
=== Madison & Monroe ===
=== War of 1812 ===
=== War of 1812 ===
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<ul><li>{{#tip-text:War Hawks|western Jeffersonians (Republicans) who blamed Britain for violating treaties and inciting indian attacks on American settlers and outposts; the British did arm tribes, including the Shawnee under chief Tecumseh}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:War Hawks|western Jeffersonians (Republicans) who blamed Britain for violating treaties and inciting indian attacks on American settlers and outposts; the British did arm tribes, including the Shawnee under chief Tecumseh}}</ul></li>
* War of 1812
* War of 1812
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Whigs|led by Henry Clay, the party replaced the Federalist Party, which was disgraced for its opposition to the War of 1812; the Whig Party was essentially Hamiltonian in its support of the "American System" of investment in infrastructure, tariffs, the national bank, and support ofr industry; the Whig party dissolved in the 1850s after having largely opposed, including Henry Clay, the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and due to the failures of the Compromise of 1850}}</ul</li>
=== Monroe presidency ===
=== Monroe presidency ===
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* eminent domain
* eminent domain
* Lancaster Turnpike
* Lancaster Turnpike
*
* mills|from 1809 to 1817, the number of "spinner mills" (just one type of mill) grew from 8,000 to 330,000; spinner mills created yarn from wool and replaced hand-run spinners
* mills|from 1809 to 1817, the number of "spinner mills" (just one type of mill) grew from 8,000 to 330,000; spinner mills created yarn from wool and replaced hand-run spinners
* Mill Dam Act of 1795|Massachusetts law that granted dam owners rights to build dams that flooded farmland, forcing them to accept "fair compensation" for the lost land, without possibility of stopping the dam itself
* Mill Dam Act of 1795|Massachusetts law that granted dam owners rights to build dams that flooded farmland, forcing them to accept "fair compensation" for the lost land, without possibility of stopping the dam itself
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=== Social changes ===
=== Social changes ===
* aristocracy|built on primogeniture, which passes "titles" -- social, economic and political ranks granted by a king -- to the first born son; the end of primogeniture dissolved the ability to pass on large estates to a single child (75% under the English custom) and spread inherited wealth across all male, and, eventually, female, children
* aristocracy| built on primogeniture, which passes "titles" -- social, economic and political ranks granted by a king -- to the first born son; the end of primogeniture dissolved the ability to pass on large estates to a single child (75% under the English custom) and spread inherited wealth across all male, and, eventually, female, children
* companionate marriage: marriage by choice and not family arrangement; marks dramatic change based upon the "democratic" principle of equality and pursuit of happiness; the idea that marriage is a choice also led to a growing acceptance of divorce within legal and social norms (a long process)
* companionate marriage: marriage by choice and not family arrangement; marks dramatic change based upon the "democratic" principle of equality and pursuit of happiness; the idea that marriage is a choice also led to a growing acceptance of divorce within legal and social norms (a long process)
* democratic society|reflects the idea that all men are born equal (originally, white males) and so social choices and reputations are based not upon one's birth but one's personal reputation
* democratic society| reflects the idea that all men are born equal (originally, white males) and so social choices and reputations are based not upon one's birth but one's personal reputation
* demographic transition|the early Republic experienced dramatic decreases in the overall birthrate due to westward migration by young men, economic and market growth which reduced the need for large families
* demographic transition| the early Republic experienced dramatic decreases in the overall birthrate due to westward migration by young men, economic and market growth which reduced the need for large families
* sentimentalism|movement of early 1800s that emphasized personal happiness over social obligations and roles
* sentimentalism| movement of early 1800s that emphasized personal happiness over social obligations and roles
* primogeniture
* primogeniture
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=== Antebellum people ===
=== Antebellum people ===
* John Quincy Adams
* John Quincy Adams
* John Calhoun|1782-150; longtime Senator from South Carolina and Vice President under presidents John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson (first term); he started his political career as a war hawk during the War of 1812 (was Secretary of War under Monroe) and a strong nationalist who supported the National Bank and protective tariffs; however, as Vice President he became a leading proponent of states-rights, anti-tariffs, and limited federal government, including to support state nullification of federal tariff laws; he owned slaves and asserted the legitimacy of the institution of slavery as a "positive good"; Calhoun, however, was an effective congressional leader and along with Clay and Webster was one of the "Great Triumvirate" who negotiated the Compromises of 1820 and 1850, although Calhoun opposed the Compromise of 1850.
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:John Calhoun|1782-150; longtime Senator from South Carolina and Vice President under presidents John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson (first term); he started his political career as a war hawk during the War of 1812 (was Secretary of War under Monroe) and a strong nationalist who supported the National Bank and protective tariffs; however, as Vice President he became a leading proponent of states-rights, anti-tariffs, and limited federal government, including to support state nullification of federal tariff laws; he owned slaves and asserted the legitimacy of the institution of slavery as a "positive good"; Calhoun, however, was an effective congressional leader and along with Clay and Webster was one of the "Great Triumvirate" who negotiated the Compromises of 1820 and 1850, although Calhoun opposed the Compromise of 1850.}}</ul></li>
* Henry Clay
* Henry Clay
* Andrew Jackson
* Andrew Jackson
* Martin Van Buren
* Martin Van Buren
* Daniel Webster
* Daniel Webster
=== Jacksonian period ===
=== Jacksonian period ===
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* Bank War
* Bank War
* Corrupt Bargain
* Corrupt Bargain
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* Postal Service
* Postal Service
* Panic of 1837
* Panic of 1837
* Second Party System|term for the new political order that arose with Jackson's presidency; the Systme was marked by higher voter interest and participation and the dominance of the Democratic and Whig parties and their machinery which included partisan newspapers, rallies, and election-day vote drives
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Second Party System| term for the new political order that arose with Jackson's presidency; the System was marked by higher voter interest and participation and the dominance of the Democratic and Whig parties and their machinery which included partisan newspapers, rallies, and election-day vote drives}}</ul></li>
* spoils system
* Tariff of 1833
* Tariff of 1833
* Trail of Tears
* Trail of Tears
* Worcester v. Georgia
* Worcester v. Georgia
</div>
<br>
<br>
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[[File:U.S. Vote for President as Population Share.png|thumb|U.S. presidential election popular vote totals as a percentage of the total U.S. population. Note the surge in 1828 (extension of suffrage to non-property-owning white men), the drop from 1890 to 1910 (when Southern states disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites), and another surge in 1920 (extension of suffrage to women).]]
=== Jacksonian democracy ===
* party machine
* spoils system
* universal (white) male suffrage
<br>
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</div>
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<div style="column-count:2">
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=== Economics ===
=== Economics ===
* "artisanal republicanism"| the ideal of agricultural-based, independence through self-sufficiency and independent farms
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:artisanal republicanism"| the ideal of agricultural-based, independence through self-sufficiency and independent farms}}</ul></li>
* cotton gin
* banks
* division of labor| as the economy expanded through growing population, connected markets (roads, canals and, eventually, railroads), the traditional artisanal economy that was self-sufficiency (building everything locally) yielded to specialized labor and skills that were used for only certain aspects of industrial and commercial production; so, rather than one person making a cabinet, multiple sets of workers would specialize in certain aspects of that production (metal or wood, working, painting, etc.); specialized labor, or "division of labor" led to set wages for types of jobs, with low-skilled jobs getting paid the least; the system challenged the Jeffersonian belief in "artisanal republicanism"
* cotton gin| invented by Eli Whitney, the "gin"
* Erie Canal | started in 1817 by the state of New York, connected the Hudson River with Lake Erie, thus joining New York City and its coastal and ocean trade networks to the Midwest, which provided markets for industrial goods, raw materials for factories, and movement of people and ideas; the Erie canal was a huge investment, thus needed financing from the state and its banking partners; the canal's economic importance is tremendous, although it and other canals were eclipsed by railroads due to the faster speed of railroads and their geographic flexibility; note that river-transportation is more efficient than on canals, especially with steamboats (that can move upstream), so rivers remain significant carriers of commercial traffic today
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:division of labor| as the economy expanded through growing population, connected markets (roads, canals and, eventually, railroads), the traditional artisanal economy that was self-sufficiency (building everything locally) yielded to specialized labor and skills that were used for only certain aspects of industrial and commercial production; so, rather than one person making a cabinet, multiple sets of workers would specialize in certain aspects of that production (metal or wood, working, painting, etc.); specialized labor, or "division of labor" led to set wages for types of jobs, with low-skilled jobs getting paid the least; the system challenged the Jeffersonian belief in "artisanal republicanism"}}</ul></li>
* Erie Canal still operates today;
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Erie Canal | started in 1817 by the state of New York, connected the Hudson River with Lake Erie, thus joining New York City and its coastal and ocean trade networks to the Midwest, which provided markets for industrial goods, raw materials for factories, and movement of people and ideas; the Erie canal was a huge investment, thus needed financing from the state and its banking partners; the canal's economic importance is tremendous, although it and other canals were eclipsed by railroads due to the faster speed of railroads and their geographic flexibility; note that river-transportation is more efficient than on canals, especially with steamboats (that can move upstream), so rivers remain significant carriers of commercial traffic today}}</ul></li>
* labor theory of value| a theory promoted by labor union organizers that the workers should profit from the goods they produce more than the owners of the factories
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:hub city| traditionally, cities arose on sea and major river ports that were geographically advantageous for settlement and trade; the rise of canals, roads, and railroads led to the rise of inland "hub cities" that usually grew along these routes or at intersections of them; the railroads and canals significantly contributed to the rising importance of "hub cities" on traditional river/ coastal locations, as they contributed to their commercial exchange:}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:journeyman| skilled worker who can earn wages in exchange for that expertise or skill; contrasted with unskilled workers}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:labor theory of value| a theory promoted by labor union organizers that the workers should profit from the goods they produce more than the owners of the factories}}</ul></li>
* land speculation
* land speculation
* machine tools| an industry that specialized in making machines and tools for use in other factories; these industries became expert at mechanical production, especially using metals
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Francis Cabot Lowell| American industrialists who toured English factories in 1811 and implemented their designs in US factories; American mechanic Paul Moody improved on those designs, which Lowell and his partners used to build textile factories in Waltham MA;}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:machine tools| an industry that specialized in making machines and tools for use in other factories; these industries became expert at mechanical production, especially using metals}}</ul></li>
* market revolution |
* market revolution |
* mineral-based economy| into the 1830s, the growing use of coal to power mills and factories supplemented the need for water mills; growing mining expertise and use of "furnaces" (smelters to melt metals) led to production of metals and metal-based items, including machines, household goods, etc.
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:mineral-based economy| into the 1830s, the growing use of coal to power mills and factories supplemented the need for water mills; growing mining expertise and use of "furnaces" (smelters to melt metals) led to production of metals and metal-based items, including machines, household goods, etc.}}</ul></li>
* National Bank
* Cyrus McCormick
* transportation revolution| before canals, roads and railroads, cities and commerce were dependent on useful natural routes, such as rivers, coastlines and natural paths; canals connected larger waterways; developed roads created more efficient paths across land, and railroads created the ability to move large loads across the land; these developments connected markets, attracted investment and development of land, and fueled the economic, political and demographic growth of the nation
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:middling class| 19th century term for what today we call the "middle class"; made up of farmers, artisans, mechanics, merchants, surveyors, lawyers, the "middling class" constituted about 30% of antebellum society; as these professions prospered, the middling class became important parts of the overall economy for production and consumption, especially of consumer goods, houses, carriages, etc.}}</ul></li>
* Waltham-Lowell System| refers to the use of young women as workers in large textile mills; most women came from farms, and took the jobs under the assurance that the factories would care for them with oversight over behaviors and mandatory church attendance; starting in 1820s in Boston, the system spread to other factories in MA and NH ; the system provided a degree of independence to these young women, as well as to earn money for their families
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:self-made man| a term for someone who rises from poverty or the working class to build his own business or profession; the "self-made man" was a democratic ideal of the idea that all men are created equal and can thus be whatever they want to be}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Samuel Sellars & Sellers family| Philadelphia industrialists who invented a machine to produce yarn, then created mills and machines to mass produce leather, paper, and wire, and, ultimately, railroad locomotives; the family helped found the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia that published technical papers, provided instructions for teaching math and science, and organized exhibits of industrial products and technologies}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Samuel Slater| English mechanic who in 1789 immigrated to the United States, bringing with him textile machinery and manufacturing techniques that were adopted by cotton mills in Rhode Island and, alter, elsewhere; Slater's importance, along with Francis Lowell, who also brought British industrial techniques to the US, is that he helped American factories compete with those of the British}}</ul></li>
* stock market
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:transportation revolution| before canals, roads and railroads, cities and commerce were dependent on useful natural routes, such as rivers, coastlines and natural paths; canals connected larger waterways; developed roads created more efficient paths across land, and railroads created the ability to move large loads across the land; these developments connected markets, attracted investment and development of land, and fueled the economic, political and demographic growth of the nation}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:unions| or "trade unions"; unions are workers, especially in factories, who organize as a group in order to negotiate with employers and to provide benefits for their own members; antebellum unionization was not extensive, and only important in industrial New England}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:unskilled worker| workers earn low wages for work that does not require training for particular skills}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Waltham-Lowell System| Francis Lowell's textile mill in Waltham MA improved upon English textile machine designs to increase efficiency, and, then, Lowell reduced cost of labor by employing young women as workers in his large textile mills; most women came from farms, and took the jobs under the assurance that the factories would care for them with oversight over behaviors and mandatory church attendance; starting in 1820s in Boston, the system spread to other factories in MA and NH ; the system provided a degree of independence to these young women, as well as to earn money for their families}}</ul></li>
* Eli Whitney
=== Slavery ===
=== Slavery ===
* abolition/ abolitionism/ abolitionist
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:abolition/ abolitionism/ abolitionist| from "abolish" for "to end" or "get rid of" slavery; the movement had various origins and directions; primarily it was a result of the American Revolution's call for equality of men; Christianity similarly informed abolition with the view of "brotherhood of man" and that all men are God's creation, including slaves; women's rights movement naturally allied with abolition in terms of a search for equality among all elements of society}}</ul></li>
* <nowiki>American Anti-Slavery Society| starting in 1830s, dedicated to ending slavery; the Society held conventions and published literature and pamphlets, which it distributed across the South in the "great postal campaign" of 1835; in 1840 William Lloyd Garrison insisted that the Society embrace the cause of women's rights, which divided the movement}}</nowiki>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:American Anti-Slavery Society| starting in 1830s, dedicated to ending slavery; the Society held conventions and published literature and pamphlets, which it distributed across the South in the "great postal campaign" of 1835; in 1840 William Lloyd Garrison insisted that the Society embrace the cause of women's rights, which divided the movement}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:American Colonization Society| formed in 1816, sought to move free blacks from the United States back to Africa; the first American colony, Liberia, was founded for the project, with just under 5,000 American blacks migrating there by 1843, and with another c. 10,000 moving by 1865; the movement was run by a coalition of reform-minded slave-holders and anti-slavery abolitionists, including Quakers and other religious abolitionists;}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:amalgamation|means racial mixing and intermarriage, which most whites across the country opposed; "amalgamation" is the same as "miscegenation"; note that "anti-miscegenation" laws remained in effect in some southern states until the 1960s}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:amalgamation|means racial mixing and intermarriage, which most whites across the country opposed; "amalgamation" is the same as "miscegenation"; note that "anti-miscegenation" laws remained in effect in some southern states until the 1960s}}</ul></li>
* emancipation
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:chattel principle| or "bill of sale principle" that held
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:gag rule|in 1836 the House of Representatives adopted a rule that "tabled" (set aside) any anti-slavery proposals; it remained in force until 1844}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:coastal trade| slave trade routes that moved young black male slaves, especially, from mid-Atlantic slave state coastal cities to New Orleans, where they were sold into forced labor on sugar plantations; the coastal slave trade was "visible" in that slaves were auctioned at the port cities and put on vessels with manifests detailing their cargo/slaves; so emancipation activists identified and publicized this trade}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:emancipation| freeing of slave; "emancipation" is the larger movement of argument for and act of freeing slaves; }}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Gabriel's Rebellion| 1800 slave revolt in Richmond, Virginia that was instigated by an educated black slave named Gabriel; inspired by the Revolution, manumission of slaves occurred in Virginia, leading to a growing free black population, which was augmented by free blacks from Haiti who had escaped the ongoing revolutionary crisis there (many of whom were themselves slave holders in Haiti); trained as a blacksmith, and having liberty of movement on behalf of his slave owner, Gabriel organized a rebellion and prepared weapons for it; word of the rebellion leaked out and Gabriel and 70 of his co-conspirators were caught; he and 23 others were hanged; the episode demonstrated the ideological power of the Revolution and its limits }}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:gag rule| in 1836 the House of Representatives adopted a rule that "tabled" (set aside) any anti-slavery proposals; it remained in force until 1844}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793|empowered slave owners and bounty hunters to seize even suspected runaway slaves and return them to slavery}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793|empowered slave owners and bounty hunters to seize even suspected runaway slaves and return them to slavery}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:inland system| slave trade from middle-Atlantic states to the South and southwestern states primarily for cotton plantations; this trade was less visible than the coastal trade, but moved upwwards a million slaves from the middle states to the deeper South}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:manumission|the act of freeing a slave}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:manumission|the act of freeing a slave}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:"positive good" argument| }}
* Nat Turner's Rebellion|1831
* Nat Turner's Rebellion|1831
* Uncle Tom’s Cabin
* Uncle Tom’s Cabin
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* Frederic Douglas
* Frederic Douglas
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Lloyd Garrison|prominent abolitionist and anti-slavery publisher of the "Genius of Universal Emancipation" in Baltimore in the 1820s and of "The Liberator" in Boston from 1831-1865; Garrison held that abolitionists should not obey the US Constitution's implicit protections of slavery and the Constitution was thereby invalid; Garrison helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society; Garrison extended his activism to include "universal emancipation," which was to include equal political rights for women and to abolish prisons and war}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:William Lloyd Garrison|prominent abolitionist and anti-slavery publisher of the "Genius of Universal Emancipation" in Baltimore in the 1820s and of "The Liberator" in Boston from 1831-1865; Garrison held that abolitionists should not obey the US Constitution's implicit protections of slavery and the Constitution was thereby invalid; Garrison helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society; Garrison extended his activism to include "universal emancipation," which was to include equal political rights for women and to abolish prisons and war}}</ul></li>
* Grimke sisters|Angelina and Sarah Grimke, who with Theodore Weld investigated and publicized the treatment and conditions of slaves in the South;
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Grimke sisters|Angelina and Sarah Grimke, who with Theodore Weld investigated and publicized the treatment and conditions of slaves in the South; the Grimke sisters deeply influenced the abolitionist movement}}</ul></li>
* Sojourner Truth
* Sojourner Truth
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Theodore Weld|early abolitionist who with the Grimke sisters investigated and published on the horrible conditions of slaves and their treatment; Weld helped organize the American Anti-Slavery Society}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Theodore Weld| early abolitionist who with the Grimke sisters investigated and published on the horrible conditions of slaves and their treatment; Weld helped organize the American Anti-Slavery Society}}</ul></li>
<br>
</div>
------------
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=== Social reform ===
=== Social reform ===
By the 1840s, various reform movements arose, some of which combined or overlapped, such as women's rights and abolitionism (not all abolitionists supported women's rights, or in the same way). Other movements included religious and quasi-religious social movements, as well as artistic and literary movements, that reflected the spirit of reform and social and political transformation. These included the Second Great Awakening, Mormonism and other religious cults, and transcendentalism.
By the 1840s, various reform movements arose, some of which combined or overlapped, such as women's rights and abolitionism (not all abolitionists supported women's rights, or in the same way). Other movements included religious and quasi-religious social movements, as well as artistic and literary movements, that reflected the spirit of reform and social and political transformation. These included the Second Great Awakening, Mormonism and other religious cults, and transcendentalism.
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* Note that certain Christian ideology deeply influenced these movements, as well as abolition
* Note that certain Christian ideology deeply influenced these movements, as well as abolition
* See also section above on Slavery
* See also section above on Slavery
<br>
------------
------------
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:cult of domesticity|a term used by historians to describe changes in the role and ideals of women in families in the 19th century; the "true woman" (historians' term, not from the period) was the center of the family: wife and mother dedicated to family, purity, religious piety, and submission to her husband; note that in this view at the time, women were not to speak publicly about politics much less agitate for the vote (see "separate sphere"; over the 19th century, middle class white women (not farmers) began to have fewer children (indicating advances in medicine and health care), which allowed them more personal time which could be spent on outside activities such as church, charities, clubs, etc.}}</ul></li>
<br>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:anti-Catholicism| America was largely Protestant, and not Anglican (Church of England), which has the King at its head; Protestantism believed that anyone can find God by themselves, so they do not need a priest or higher-level church official between them and their God; in addition to the split of the Anglican Church from the Roman Catholic Church under Henry VIII, American Protestants believed that the Catholic hierarchical structure (of priests >> bishops >> pope), was undemocratic and antirepublican; thus Catholics were held to be more obedience to the Pope in Rome than to the President at Washington; anti-Catholicism contributed to the the American Revolution itself, and carried into the early Republic and antebellum period as Catholic immigration increased in the 1830-1850s from Germany and Ireland}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:cult of domesticity| a term used by historians to describe changes in the role and ideals of women in families in the 19th century; the "true woman" (historians' term, not from the period) was the center of the family: wife and mother dedicated to family, purity, religious piety, and submission to her husband; note that in this view at the time, women were not to speak publicly about politics much less agitate for the vote (see "separate sphere"; over the 19th century, middle class white women (not farmers) began to have fewer children (indicating advances in medicine and health care), which allowed them more personal time which could be spent on outside activities such as church, charities, clubs, etc.}}</ul></li>
* Declaration of Sentiments
* Declaration of Sentiments
<ul><li>lyceum movement<li>{{#tip-text:Nativism| anti-immigration movement that principally objected to Catholic immigrants; the discrimination was protestant anti-Catholicism as well as over economic competition, they blamed the Catholic immigrants for taking jobs}}</ul>
* Philadelphia Women's Anti-Slavery Convention
* Philadelphia Women's Anti-Slavery Convention
* Seneca Falls Convention
* Seneca Falls Convention
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:separate sphere|the idea that women were to confine their activities to the domestic and not public life, especially that they not engage in politics and public demonstrations}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:separate sphere| the idea that women were to confine their activities to the domestic and not public life, especially that they not engage in politics and public demonstrations}}</ul></li>
* suffrage
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:suffrage|the right to vote; also called "the franchise" (thus "disenfranchisement" means to take away or inhibit someone's right to vote}}</ul></li>
* Temperance movement|anti-alcohol reform movement, which aimed to abolish use of alcohol or at least restrict its sale; "temperance" means moderation and self-restraint; the temperance movement was driven especially by certain religious denominations}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Temperance movement| anti-alcohol reform movement, which aimed to abolish use of alcohol or at least restrict its sale; "temperance" means moderation and self-restraint; the temperance movement was driven especially by certain religious denominations}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Treatise on Domestic Economy, 1841|by Catharine Beecher, a book on the "domestic economy" and how women should run their households with efficiency and "domesticity"}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Treatise on Domestic Economy, 1841|by Catharine Beecher, a book on the "domestic economy" and how women should run their households with efficiency and "domesticity"}}</ul></li>
=== Women's rights advocates ===
=== Reformers ===
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Lyman Beecher| 1820-30s Presbyterian preacher who influenced the temperance movement (anti-alcohol), promoted revivals and other Second Great Awakening movements, and supported the American Colonization Society which sought to send freed slaves back to Africa; Beecher opposed Calvinist predetermination and preached salvation through "free will"; Beecher was vehemently and publicly anti-Catholic}}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Charles Finney| Second Great Awakening Protestant evangelists who led religious revivals along the Eire Canal and into Ohio, where he founded a theology department at Oberlin College; Finney promoted the democratic idea that anyone could be "saved" by Christ, as each person was "a moral free agent" who could choose salvation; }}</ul></li>
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Elizabeth Cady Stanton| woman's rights activist and abolitionist who organized the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention and primary author of the convention's Declaration of Sentiments; Stanton was among the first to promote the idea of women's right to vote (suffrage), which was not common before the Civil War; Stanton fought for equality for women under the law in terms of access to courts and property rights, especially following divorce or death of a husband}}</ul></li>
=== Transcendentalism/ Second Great Awakening ===
=== Transcendentalism/ Second Great Awakening ===
* Adventist/ Adventism| religious movement started in the 1830s by a Baptist preacher (William Miller) who claimed that Christ's Second Coming would occur in 1843 or 1844; the movement is reflective of the Second Great Awakening and its democratization of religious belief
* Adventist/ Adventism| religious movement started in the 1830s by a Baptist preacher (William Miller) who claimed that Christ's Second Coming would occur in 1843 or 1844; the movement is reflective of the Second Great Awakening and its democratization of religious belief
* Hudson Valley artistic movement
* Hudson Valley artistic movement
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Herman Melville & "Moby Dick"| novel that criticized transcendentalism's notion of extreme individualism (tracking the tragic, individualistic fanaticism of Captain Ahab's quest to kill a whale called "Moby Dick"}}</ul></li>
* Naturalism
* Naturalism
* Second Great Awakening| a series of religious movements marked especially by "revivals," or gatherings, and "romanticism," or focus on the emotional over the rational; population growth and the extension of the frontier offered opportunity for the spread of evangelical religious movements, as well as the democratic impulse of reform
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:Second Great Awakening| a series of religious movements marked especially by "revivals," or gatherings, and "romanticism," or focus on the emotional over the rational; population growth and the extension of the frontier offered opportunity for the spread of evangelical religious movements, as well as the democratic impulse of reform}}</ul></li>
* Henry David Thoreau
* Henry David Thoreau
* transcendentalism
<ul><li>{{#tip-text:transcendentalism| from "transcend" for "to go beyond," a reference to the movement's dislike for convention and conventional rules of society, philosophy, and literature/poetry; transcendentalism is related to the Second Great Awakening in its emphasis on a personal relationship with God; the movement sought to empower individuals and individualism; }}</ul></li>
* Walden Pond
* Walden Pond
* Ralph Waldo Emerson
* Ralph Waldo Emerson
Latest revision as of 01:06, 11 November 2024
US History and AP US History Running Vocabulary List: Terms, Concepts, Names and Events
Additional keywords: AP U.S. History, APUSH, AP us, apush, note: see Talk page for to do list and suggestions
This page may be used as an all-round study guide for the AP US History exam.
Primary goals of this study guide:
Knowledge of periods
Knowledge of terms, people and places
Knowledge of dates
See here for map review of US History
For Multiple Choice section (MCQ), students are to:
US History: BIG IDEAS for American self-conception and historical choices[edit | edit source]
Students may address historican themes, events, and periods using the various notions of self-conception of Americans across history. Note that these concepts change over time. A short list of topics/ core ideas includes:
the American Dream
American exceptionalism
Americanism (and What is it to be an American?)
Civil liberties
Civil Rights
"City on a Hill"
Debate
Dissent
Due process
Duty
E pluribus unam
Equality
Expansionism (including westerd expansion, overseas expansion; also economic)
In 1835, the French aristocrat, Alexis de Tocqueville published the first of two volumes, "Democracy in America". Tocqueville was intrigued by the social, cultural and political implications of a democratic society -- by which he meant, generally,
absence of social classes or heirarchies among citizens
members of that dominant social class consider themselves one another's equal
Tocqueville's analysis yields enormous insight into the American character of the 1830s as well as today:
notion of equality
individualism
emphasis on local governance
civic activity and associations
spirit of religion
These characteristics of a democracy can be applied to historical analysis on the AP exam and for understanding US History generally.
Britain held colonial possessions in the Caribbean region, as well as the thirteen colonies and portions of Canada
following smaller wars and the worldwide French-Indian War (Seven Years War), Britain sequentially took France's Canadian possessions as well as its landholdings between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.
Levels of British control of the colonies rose and fell according to domestic British politics and its international priorities.
The American Revolution was largely the result of the exercise of direct control of colonial affairs that followed the French-Indian War.
Origins and indirect causes of the French-Indian War[edit | edit source]
Long term causes:
French colonial expansion across the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley and along the Mississippi River
English colonial expansion in western New York and Pennsylvania
Indirect causes:
English v. French rivalry over easter and central North American lands and trade routes
Treaty of Utrecht, 1713: France ceded Nova Scotia to the British and abandoned its claims to Newfoundland
Indian rivalries and warfare, especially between French-aligned Algonquins and British-aligned Iroquois tribes and nations
Direct causes of the French-Indian War =[edit | edit source]
the immediate cause of the war was the growing presence of English colonials across the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Valley
the French and their Indian allies opposed these settlements
1753-54: Virginia militia expeditions sent to challenge French expansion in the Ohio Valley via building of a series of forts
May 1754: fighting breaks out at Ft. Duquesne and Ft. Necessity
a site of considerable contention was Fort Duquesne at present-day Pittsburg, as the location was at the confluence of two major rivers leading into the Ohio River
sparked by an unsuccessful British and colonial attacks on French forts in Pennsylvania
in 1753, George Washington 1753 delivered a message to the French at another Fort in Pennsylvania demanding French evacuation from the region
on July 3, 1754, as a colonel in the Virginia Militia, Washington led an attack upon the French Ford Necessity; he lost and had to surrender
British regular Army, along with colonial militias (and including Washington), reorganized and attacked another French fort, Fort Duquesne on Sept. 14, 1758, and also lost
there were 500 French and Indian soldiers
and 400 British regulars and 350 colonial militia
the British eventually took Ft. Duquesne in 1758 (renaming it Ft. Pitt), and the focus of the war moved toward Canada and the St. Lawrence River waterways, particularly the French city Quebec.
the American-sparked war turned global as Britain and France squared off against one another and their allies in Continental Europe, the Caribbean, Africa, India and China
after going well for France and its allies at first, the British scored significant victories starting 1758 and, especially, in 1759 ("Annus Mirabillus") and 1762.
depleted financially and in resources, both France and England met at Paris to negotiate an end to the War, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which divided up colonial holdings, giving Britain control of North America east of the Mississippi.
the French-Indian War and the British government response to its aftermath set the conditions for the American Revolution.
French and British positions at the start of the War British North America and New France and Allies. This Map also shows both the Iroquois and Wabanaki Confederacies, who were both influential in the war on the British and French sides respectively.
the "American Revolution" refers generally to the period between the French-Indian War and, either the breakout (1775/76) or end of the Revolutionary War (1781/83)
the war itself is called "The Revolutionary War"
the logic for the terminology is that the pre-War period was "revolutionary" in the sense that the colonists went from identifying as "Englishmen" (subjects of the King of England) to an independent "American" people;
their choices, rebellions, self-identity, philosophy, etc. went through a "revolutionary" change
"revolution" is from Latin revolvere for "turn, roll back" and in its political sense means a "great change in affairs" or "overthrow of an established political order"
students will be expected to evaluate the origins, causes and consequences of the American Revolution
and, less importantly but expected nonetheless, of the events and outcomes of the Revolutionary War
Influence of Enlightenment thought and thinkers[edit | edit source]
The laws passed by Parliament following the French-Indian War were designed for two primary purposes:
raise revenue from the colonies in order to defer the costs of the Seven Years War
exercise greater control over colonial affairs and governance
Notably, new taxes and rules marked a shift away from "mercantilism," which was designed to trade relations between the Britain and the colonies would benefit Britain. Instead, these new taxes were intended to maximize revenue, which meant many of them were actually lower than before (under the theory that lower taxes would result in greater compliance and less smuggling and corruption).
Chronology of Colonial Acts
Year
Act
1763
Sugar Act
1764
Currency Act
1765
Stamp Act
1765
Quartering Act
1766
Declaratory Act
1767
Townshend Acts
1767
Revenue Act
1773
Tea Act
1774
Quebec Act
1775
Coervice Acts
("Intolerable Acts")
Below are these acts, alphabetically. Students should memorize their dates and chronology (thus the definition list does not immediately show dates) in order to build a strong sense of causality between them and the larger context of the American Revolution as it turned into the Revolutionary War.
Creation of the United States: Articles of Confederation & U.S. Constitution[edit | edit source]
"united States" was first used (or prominently used) in the Declaration of Independence
but the term "united" was a modifier, not proper noun.
The Second Continental Congress officially adopted the name "united Colonies" (lower case "united") on Sept. 9, 1776,
as it was also termed in the Declaration of Independence (" The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America").
the Articles of Confederation, first drafted in June, 1776, then when adopted in 1781, stated, "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'" (capitalized "United", and so now a proper noun).
on March 4, 1789, when the Constitution was formally adopted , the named the country "United States" and called the Constitution, "this Constitution for the United States of America."
proposed in June, 1776, adopted by the various states starting with Virginia in Dec., 1777, officially adopted with Maryland's ratification on Feb 2, 1781 (Delaware ratified it Feb 1, 1779; all other states ratified it across 1778).
Following border tensions, frontier disputes over the British arming of native tribes, and outrage at British impressment of American sailors, American militia and naval forces attacked British Canada. The British attached Baltimore and Washington DC, which was burned in retaliation for American burning of the Canadian capital at Ottawa. The war ended a parity with not major advantage to either side. But despite a clear victory, the Americans considered it a great success for having fended off the strongest empire in the world, and the war led to greater American unity and the "Era of Good Feelings."
Panic of 1819|as the nation grew, banks issued more and more "unsecured" loans (i.e. loans that were not directly backed by bank deposits), which went most dominantly towards land acquisition and farming expansion; following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, agricultural prices dropped as production exceeded demand, and farm commodity prices collapsed (especially cotton and wheat); as a result, farmers could not pay back loans and sold land and lower and lower prices to cover their debts}}
The Appalachian watershed provided almost unlimited opportunity for building of mills and dams to serve them. In Massachusetts,
commercial versus sustenance farming|into the 1800s, farming became more connected to markets and thus more specialized; rather than farming to meet a family's needs, which would require both crops and animals, farms increasingly specialized in one or the other, and sold their production in exchange for (via currency) other food and goods; canals, dams, mills, rivers and roads provided access for these farmers to markets for their goods
Commonwealth system|favorable laws, loans and public policy withing states towards transportation, industrial enterprises, etc. under the idea that such preferences were "for the common welfare"
dams
eminent domain
Lancaster Turnpike
mills|from 1809 to 1817, the number of "spinner mills" (just one type of mill) grew from 8,000 to 330,000; spinner mills created yarn from wool and replaced hand-run spinners
Mill Dam Act of 1795|Massachusetts law that granted dam owners rights to build dams that flooded farmland, forcing them to accept "fair compensation" for the lost land, without possibility of stopping the dam itself
aristocracy| built on primogeniture, which passes "titles" -- social, economic and political ranks granted by a king -- to the first born son; the end of primogeniture dissolved the ability to pass on large estates to a single child (75% under the English custom) and spread inherited wealth across all male, and, eventually, female, children
companionate marriage: marriage by choice and not family arrangement; marks dramatic change based upon the "democratic" principle of equality and pursuit of happiness; the idea that marriage is a choice also led to a growing acceptance of divorce within legal and social norms (a long process)
democratic society| reflects the idea that all men are born equal (originally, white males) and so social choices and reputations are based not upon one's birth but one's personal reputation
demographic transition| the early Republic experienced dramatic decreases in the overall birthrate due to westward migration by young men, economic and market growth which reduced the need for large families
sentimentalism| movement of early 1800s that emphasized personal happiness over social obligations and roles
U.S. presidential election popular vote totals as a percentage of the total U.S. population. Note the surge in 1828 (extension of suffrage to non-property-owning white men), the drop from 1890 to 1910 (when Southern states disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites), and another surge in 1920 (extension of suffrage to women).
By the 1840s, various reform movements arose, some of which combined or overlapped, such as women's rights and abolitionism (not all abolitionists supported women's rights, or in the same way). Other movements included religious and quasi-religious social movements, as well as artistic and literary movements, that reflected the spirit of reform and social and political transformation. These included the Second Great Awakening, Mormonism and other religious cults, and transcendentalism.
Other reform movements included improving education, prisons and treatment of the insane
Note that certain Christian ideology deeply influenced these movements, as well as abolition
Transcendentalism/ Second Great Awakening[edit | edit source]
Adventist/ Adventism| religious movement started in the 1830s by a Baptist preacher (William Miller) who claimed that Christ's Second Coming would occur in 1843 or 1844; the movement is reflective of the Second Great Awakening and its democratization of religious belief
The Antebellum period goes all the way to the Civil War, however in the 1850s decade leading up to the Civil War, events accelerated and more direct causes for the War become apparent
the value of the New York Stock Exchange was measured in value by the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA, also known as "the DOW"; it is still used, but among other measures);
the market rose from about 150 in January of 1927 to a peak of 381 in August of 1929.
it started dropping through September into October, before its precipitous drop to 237 on Oct 29
it stabilizied in early 1930, then in May continued a long drop to its low of 41 on July 8, 1932; the DOW did not reach 381 until 1954
WWII was the last conflict entered by official Declaration of War by Congress
all other post-WWII "wars" have been without actual declaration of war
the U.S. has entered most of these wars through a combination of Executive Action and Congressional approval, either for a military action or funding thereof
a key component of post-WWII US History for students to grapple with is the dramatic change to worldwide involvement and/or adventurism and the various justifications for them
students should understand American "hegemony" and reaons for American worlwdide dominance and the extent to which it may be considered economic, political cultural imperialism
third parties represent political movements that the major parties do not accommodate
or a split within them
elections through to the 1830s had multiple candidates from the same party, so were not technically "third parties)
or they were divided geographically and/or over a particular issue or political position
Party
Election
% of Popular Vote
Notes
Anti-Masonic Party
1832
7.8%
opposed "Freemasonry" (elitist secret society that was opposed by mainstream religous groups);
the movement started wit hthe "Morgan affair", when a former Mason show spoke out against the society was murdered
Freemasons were accused of secretly controlling the government
Liberty Party
1844
2.3%
abolitionist, anti-slavery party
Free Soil
1848
10.1%
opposed expansion of slavery into new territories
former president Martin Van Buren was candidate in 1848
formed after the Mexican-American War over concerns about the expansion of slavery
the Free Soil party was mostly former Whigs who joined the Republican Party when they merged in 1854
1852
4.9%
Know Nothing (American Party)
1856
21.6%
anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic
largely made up of Whigs after the collapse of that party
the party also appealed to reformers, standing for rights of women, regulation of industry and labor, prefiguring the progressive movement
former president Millard Filmore was candidate
Four-way split
1860
Republican (Abraham Lincolon): 39.8%
Southern Democrat (John Breckinridge): 18.1%
Constitutional Union (John Bell): 12.6%
Democratic (Stephen Douglas): 29.5%
Liberal Republican
1872
43.8%
candidate Horace Greeley, publisher of the New York Tribune
opposed President Grant as corrupt and his Reconstruction policies as too harsh (wanted removal of US Army from the South)
opposed the high tariff and promoted civil service reform
the Democratic party had no national organization, so Greeley hoped to attrack their vote, but failed
Greenback Party
1876
0.99%
soft money platform, originally associated with the Grange (agricultural organization, cooperative)
anti-monopoly, anti-railroads
1880
3.35%
Prohibition Party
1884
1.5%
single issue: temperance
persisted longer than most third-party movements and influenced larger politics, with ultimate victory in the 18th amendment
1888
2.2%
1896
.094%
1900
1.51%
1904
1.92%
1912
1.38%
1916
1.19%
Populist Party
1892
8.5%
agrarian, anit-business/railroad movement
pro-soft money
Socialist Party
1904
2.98%
Eugene Debs was the candidate in 1904, 1908, 1912 & 1920 elections
1908
2.83%
1912
6%
1916
3.19%
1920
3.41%
1932
2.23%
Progressive Party
1912
27%
Teddy Roosevelt's party after split with Republican Party following its convention in 1912
Roosevelt took more votes than the Republican incumbant Taft (23.2%)
with the Republican vote split, Wilson won with 41.8% of the popular voate
Progressive
1924
16.6%
a diferent orgniazaiton form the Teddy Roosevelt's Progressive Party, which he abandoned after 1912 (he was nominated in 1916 but refused)
former Republican Robert La Follette, a progressive how refused to back Roosevelt, reformed the party in 1924
Dixiecrat
Progressive
1948
2.4%
2.4%
independent movements that were splinter factions from FDR's Democratic coalition that fell apart under Truman
Dixiecrats were souther segregationists
Progressives were FDR Democrats led by his former Vice President Henry Wallace
American Independent
1968
13.5%
led by southern Democrat George Wallace, populist, segregationist governore of Alabama who opposed Johnson's support of the Civil Rights movement
John Anderson (Independent candidate)
1980
6.6%
Republican John Anderson split from the Republican Party and ran as a "moderate" alternative to Reagan
Ross Pero (Independent candidate/ Reform Party)
1992
18.9%
populist businessman Ross Perot opposed Bush and Clinton and gained widespread support
in 1996, Perot ran on the Reform Party ticket, which he formed after 1992
1996
8.4%
Green Party
2000
2.74%
Envronmentalist and consumer activist Ralph Nader ran on the Green Party ticket and likely threw the close 2000 election to Bush, as he drew support from the Democratic left
Libertarian
2016
3.28%
Libertarian party candidate Gary Johnson gained national support for his opposition to Obama's regulatory state and in opposition to Donald Trump's candidacy as a Republican
Robert F. Kennedy (independent candidate)
2024
?
son of former Senator and assassinated 1968 presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy
running as a third-party alternative to Biden and Trump
French company had Royal grant for trading rights to French colonies in Americas
to cover French government debt over Louis XIV's wars, the government allowed the compan to issue paper money backed by national debt
speculation in shares of the company led to more paper money issued, which was then put back into company shares, which led to the second largest bubble in economic history ($6.5 trillion peak value in current dollars, behind only the Dutch East India Company bubble)
Panic of 1792
1792
Short-lived panic caused by sudden credit expansion following the formation of the Bank of the United States, which led to land speculation
a group of bankers tried to drive up pricies of securities (stocks, contracts) but failed to meet their loans, causing a bank run
Alexander Hamilton stabilized the market with stock purchases by the government
Land bubble 1796
1996
Land speculation bubble that collapsed following specie payments suspension by the Bank of England, caused by a rush of bank withdrawals in England out of fear of a war with France
the imnpact and connection of London banks to the American economy worried
Panic of 1819
1819-1821
Financial crisis sparked by land speculation bubble, excess paper money, and issuance of bank notes unbacked by gold by the Second Bank of the United States
after annulment of the First National Bank in 1811, states granted charters to banks, many of which were speculative and underfinanced
the Second Bank of the United States, established in 1816, reacted to the crisis by first expanding than drastically retracting credit, which exacerbated the crisis
as Europe recovered from the Napoleonic Wars, its agricultural product increased and led to price drops, which hurt American producers, who, in turn, were unable to pay back loans
the Panic came amidst implementation of the "American System" of canal and road building and tariffs, which were blamed for the downturn
Panic of 1837
1837-1843
Major depression in which prices, profits, wages, and financial activity was severely curtailed
led to mass unemployment
impacted westward expansion and led t collapse in agricultural prices, especially cotton
started with bank runs in New York when investors demanded their deposits from banks who could not back then in gold or silver
was the worst financial crisis up until the Great Depression
the panic followed a speculative boom that was fueled by land sales, cotton exports, and extensive inflows of silver from the US, Mexico and China
President Jackson's dismantling of the Second Bank of the United States led to a disorderly unwinding of its assets and operations;
however, the Bank itself contributed to the speculative bubble through issuance of paper money and loose oversight
the Jackson administration's "Specie Circular of 1836," which was intended to halt speculation in land sales, dried up credit and helped spark the Panic
Panic of 1857
1857-1859
National financial crisis sparked by British change in requirements for gold and silver reserves for paper money
the influx of gold from the California Gold Rush greatly expanded the money supply but was also inflationary and led to excessive speculation
in the US, a finanical panic followed the collapse of a major investment company (Ohio Life Insurance and Trust)
speculation in railroads had exploded, and many were fraudulent, and after the Ohio Life company failed, prices collapsed
grain prices also experienced a bubble in the mid 1850s, which led to farmland speculation, both of which also collapsed in the Panic
Crédit Mobilier scandal
1864-1867
A railoard company created by the Union Pacific Railroad to build the eastern portion of the transcontinental railroad inflated its costs by $44 million dollars and paid bribes to politicians for laws and regulatory ruilings in its favor
the scandal was broken by a newspaper during the 1874 presidential campaign and led to a political crisis for certain members of Congress and the Republican Party in general
which along with other
Panic of 1873
1873-1877
bank runs in New York
financial crisis due to inflation and speculative investments especially in railroads
huge discoveries of silver in the west led to decline in the value of silver and the "demonitization of silver" in 1873 (Coinage Act of 1873), which lowered silver prices and thus impacted anyone invested in silver and silver mining
it led to a reduction in the money supply and higher interest rates, which hurt debtors, especially farmers
impacted Europe
started the "Long Depression," 1873-1879
Panic of 1893
1893-1897
Econoic depression that was sparked by the failure of an Argentine bank, Baring Brothers, which collapsed over crops price collapse,
which led to a run on American gold reserves by European investors who were facing losses there and in South Africa and Australia
a railroad company collepse just before Grover Cleveland's 2nd inauguration led him to ask Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which had forced the Government to purchase Silver in order to prop up its value, which was depleting the Government's gold reserves
bank and railroad failures followed, with subsequent securities (stocks) and commodities price drops
in 1895 the Government issued "Treasury bonds" which were purchased, by arrangement, by banks, especially the Morgan Bank of New York, but which helped stabilize Government gold reserves and general economic confidence
