SAT Digital Reading and Writing Test quick start guide

Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules

• see SAT Writing section techniques, strategies & approaches for more detailed instructions

Abbreviations

• IC = independent clause
• DC = dependent clause
• Phr = phrase
• S= subject (noun)
• V = verb
• O = object (noun)

Verbs quick start guide

Students are frequently taught that verbs are "action words". However; the definition is misleading because verbs may indicate an action, but they may also indicate a state, condition, existence or occurrence. The best way to think of a verb is that it is the core of a "predicate" and establishes the "idea" of the sentence (see "predicate")

Verb definition

• indicates an action, state, condition, existence or occurrence
• the dictionary definition of "verb" is

noun. a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence.

• Verb examples:

Common verbs (present tense forms)

Present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
play, plays	am playing, is playing, are playing	have played, has played
do, does	am doing, is doing, are doing	have done, has done
am, is, are	am being, is being, are being	have been, has been
have been, has been	you have been	he/she/it has been
go, goes	am going, is going, are going	have gone, has gone
think, thinks	am thinking, is thinking, are thinking	have thought, has thought
get, gets	am getting, is getting, are getting	have gotten, has gotten

• Note that "am", "are" "is" are verbs, even though they do not express a direct action

Verbs and predicates:

• the verb is the basis of the predicate of a sentence
• the predicate = the action and its result/s, modifier/s or object/s
  • the predicate is the "idea" of the sentence ("what is or does")
  • the "subject" is the "person" or "perspective" of a sentence ("the doer")
  • ex.

The elephant	sprayed the people
subject (the person)	predicate (the idea)

• for the SAT, identify if a verb is finite or non-finite

Finite verb

• has a subject
• finite verbs form the core of a sentence or clause
• "is" and "are" are finite verbs
  • = conjugation of the verb "to be", which is a linking verb
  • IDENTIFY them in a sentence, then match them to their subject
• dependent clauses have finite verbs, so identify the subject-verb match in a dependent clause in order not to confuse it with the subject-verb match of the main or independent clause
  • ex. The thing I like most about her is her sunny attitude
    • S-V of main clause = Thing + is
    • S-V of relative clause = I + like

Non-finite verb

• does not have a subject
• non-finite verbs act as a noun (gerund), adjective (past or present participle) or infinitive ("to" form of a verb)
• for the SAT, the most important non-finite verb is the present participle adjective
  • = the -ing form of a non-finite verb acting as an adjective
    • note that non-finite verbs acting as nouns, called gerunds, are also in the -ing form of the verb
  • present participles are used to add information to an independent clause
    • ex. Driving carefully, she made it home safely in the storm
      • = "She drove carefully in the storm. She made it home safely."
      • we can combine those two sentences into a more compact sentence by using the non-finite verb "driving"
    • note that participle phrases are attached to an independent clause by a comma and not a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)

Linking verb

• a finite verb (has a subject) that "links" a noun or adjective (the complement) to the subject
• ex. She is a doctor
  • "she" = subject
  • "is" = linking verb
• linking verbs do not have objects
  • instead they have "subject complements"
  • in the sentence, She is a doctor
    • "doctor" = subject complement noun
    • "doctor" is not the object of the verb "is"
    • instead, the verb "is" links the complement noun "doctor" to the subject "she"
  • in the sentence, The patient feels sick
    • "sick" = subject complement adjective
    • "sick" is an adjective so it cannot be an object (which is a noun)
    • so, the verb "feels" links the complement adjective "sick" to the subject "patient"
• for the SAT, note that
  • linking verbs have subjects
    • thus "is" and "are" are finite verbs with subjects to match to
  • linking verbs do not have objects
    • instead, they have "complements

Verb tense, conjugation and subject-verb matching quick start guide

• "conjugation" means "to inflect" a verb according to the "person" of its subject
  • "inflection" = word ending changes
    • i.e., "go" >> "going", or "go" >> "goes"
  • "person" = the "voice" or "perspective" of the subject of a sentence
    • i.e., "I" = first person singular; "we" = first person plural, etc.

Person

Verbs: "person" of the subject

Person	Singular	Plural
First person	I	we
Second person	you	you (all)
Third person	he / she / it	they
	singular noun (ex. the lion roars)	plural noun (ex. the lions roar)

Conjugation

• matches subject and verb
  • or, the verb-ending matches the person of the subject

Conjugation: "to be"

	singular	plural
First person	I am	We are
Second person	You are	You (all) are
Third person	He / She / It is	They are

the SAT test will only ask students to select between third person singular ("it") and third person plural ("they")

Conjugation: "to go"

	singular	plural
First person	I go	We go
Second person	You go	You (all) go
Third person	He / She / It goes	They go

Tense

• tense = verb forms that indicate time (when)
  • past, present, future
  • and sub-categories of them
• for the SAT, know that the present perfect HAS and HAVE verb forms are PRESENT TENSE

Present Tense: third person singular and plural

	Simple present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
Singular	It works	It is working	It has worked
	It interacts	It is interacting	It has interacted
	It does	It is doing	It has done*
Plural	They work	They are working	They have worked
	They interact	They are interacting	They have interacted
	They do	They are doing	They have done.

• HAD is PAST TENSE

Past Tense: third person singular and plural

	Simple present	Present Continuous	Present Perfect
Singular	It worked	It was working	It had worked
	It interacted	It was interacting	It had interacted
	It did*	It was doing	It had done*
Plural	They worked	They were working	They had worked
	They interacted	They were interacting	They had interacted
	They did*	They were doing	They had done.*

* irregular

Sentences quick start guide

• A sentence is a grammatically correct, complete thought.
• A sentence must:
  • contain a subject and verb
    • i.e. a finite verb
  • form a complete thought
• types of sentences:
  • a simple sentence has a single independent clause
  • a compound sentence has two or more independent clauses (see below)
  • a complex sentence has an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
    • and/or phrases, especially participle phrases (see below)

Sentence core

• the "core" of a sentence is its subject-verb
• for the SAT, identify the "sentence core" in order to
  • comprehend the sentence
  • identify modifying, or non-essential, parts
  • correctly answer subject-verb match questions

Sentence parts

• we can divide a sentence into two core parts:
  • SUBJECT and PREDICATE
• SUBJECT = the perspective of the sentence (i.e. the "doer")

• PREDICATE = the action or idea of the sentence

SUBJECT the doer or perspective	PREDICATE the action or idea
dog	bites
mailman	runs

• additional information may be added using "modifiers" and "complements"

• modifiers add important information but are not essential to a grammatically complete sentence
  • modifiers include articles
• complements add information to the subject or verb

SUBJECT the doer or perspective			PREDICATE the action or idea
the	scared	mailman	runs	from	the	mean	dog
sentence core:
		subject	verb
modifiers and complements:
article	adjective			preposition	article	adjective	object complement of the preposition

Clauses quick start guide

• a clause has a finite verb
  • i.e. it consists of a subject + verb

independent clause

• has a finite verb
• makes a complete thought
  • i.e., if by itself it would make a (simple) sentence

dependent clause

• has a finite verb
• does not make a complete thought
  • i.e. by itself it would not make a sentence
• dependent clauses add information to an independent clause

• dependent clauses are formed by subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns

Subordinate clause

• "subordinate" = "below" or "under"
• it is subordinate to the IC
• it is "subordinated" by a "subordinating conjunction":

Subordinate clause (DC)				Independent clause (IC)
Since	the snow	fell	all night	school	canceled
subordinating conjunction	subject	verb	prepositional phrase	subject (relative pronoun)	verb
The DC could not be a sentence by itself:				The IC could be a sentence by itself:
Since the snow fell all night.				School canceled.

Relative clause (also called "adjective clause")

• adds modifying information
• is a dependent clause
• introduced by the relative pronouns that, which, who, whose

Independent clause (IC)			Relative clause (DC)
The snow	fell	all night	which	meant	no school!
subject	verb	prepositional phrase	subject(relative pronoun)	verb	object phrase
The IC could be a sentence by itself:			The DC could not be a sentence by itself:
The snow fell all night.			Which meant no school!

• note: if we used the wording, "The snow fell all night, which meant school canceled," we would then have the clause "school canceled" (subject-verb) as a dependent (noun) clause within the first dependent (relative) clause:
  • i.e. The snow fell all night, which meant school canceled
    • relative clause
    • noun clause
  • the dependent marker "that" is assumed (thus can be omitted):
    • The snow fell all night, which meant that school canceled
  • the SAT will not measure students directly on noun clauses, although sentences may include them
• for more on noun clauses, see SAT Writing section:#noun clause or Grammar: Clause#noun clause

Relative clause within an IC:

• Relative clauses may come in between an independent clause's subject and predicate

• the SAT frequently measures this sentence form:
  • in order to confuse students about subject-verb matching
  • in order to confuse students about punctuation

• ex.:

The study that used more samples shows promise.

Independent Clause (IC)
The study		shows		promise
Subject		Verb		Object
Relative Clause (DC)
	that	used	more samples
	subject (relative pronoun)	verb	object phrase

• Note: on this sentence, the SAT might try to confuse the student with a mismatch of the singular subject "study" and singular verb "shows"
  • by selecting the plural object of the relative clause "samples" and incorrectly matching it to the plural verb "show"
  • the test might also try to confuse students over the tense of the past-tense "used" and present-tense "shows"

• Here's another depiction of a relative clause that fits between the subject and verb of an independent clause:
• ex., for the sentence
  • The dog that barks has no bite
    • IC subject-verb = "dog has"
    • DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "that barks"

• ex., for the sentence
  • • The friend that I made in France last year will visit this summer
      • IC subject-verb = "friend will visit"
      • DC (relative clause) subject-verb = "I made"
      • DC relative pronoun = "that"
        • here, the relative pronoun "that" is acting as a "conjunction" or "dependent marker"
          • as it marks or sets up the the relative clause

BIG IDEAS for relative clauses

• with the relative pronoun "that" no punctuation is used
  • ("that" may be preceded or followed by a parenthetical element that uses parentheses, commas or dashes)
  • the SAT will frequently ask to place a semicolon or colon after "that" -- this is incorrect
• if coming in between the subject and verb, the relative pronoun "which" may or may not be separated by commas
  • if "that" can be substituted, "which" does not need a comma
  • if "that" can not be substituted, "which" uses a comma
• do not confuse the subject-verb of the relative clause with the subject-verb of the independent clause (IC)

Phrases quick start guide

• a phrase is two or more words that do not contain a finite verb
  • i.e., any two words that are not a subject + verb
• phrases add information
• and build up ideas, provide context, information, qualify, etc.
  • especially to add information to either a subject or predicate

SUBJECT		PREDICATE
On Tuesdays	my friend and I	play	competitive tennis	at the local club
prepositional phrase	subject phrase	verb	object phrase	prepositional phrase

Prepositional phrases

• identify prepositional phrases (see SAT Writing section #prepositional phrase for more)
• the noun that follows the preposition is its object
• the noun that precedes the preposition is modified by the prepositional phrase
  • I left the keys on the desk
    • the noun (object) "keys" is modified by the prepositional phrase "on the desk"
  • or, if separated by a verb, the noun is the subject and the prepositional phrase serves as the subject or verb complement (like an adverb)
    • The keys are on the desk
      • "on" is the preposition and "desk" is its object
      • the prepositional phrase "on the desk" is the subject complement of "keys" (connected by the linking verb "are")
    • He ran up the hill
      • "up the hill" is an adverbial prepositional phrase that modifies the verb "ran"

• The SAT will try to confuse students between the subject of a clause and the object of a preposition
  • note that the object of a preposition is never the subject of a clause

Participle phrases

• participles are the verb forms of using -ing and -ed
  • these may be finite or non-finite (see "Verbs" guide)
• non-finite participles do not have a subject and may act as nouns ("gerund") or adjectives (present or past participle adjective)

Participle as finite verb	Form	Participle as non-finite verb	Form
I was feeling hungry, so I decided to get a burger	"feeling" = present continuous finite verb (with subject "I")	Feeling hungry, I decided to get a burger	"feeling" = non-finite present participle adjective that describes the IC subject "I"
If you are studying, you will get higher grades.	"are studying" = present continuous finite verb (with subject "you")	Studying yields higher grades	"studying" = gerund (non-finite participle as noun) and acts as the subject of the finite verb "yields"
The train stopped, and people waited impatiently.	"stopped" = past tense finite verb (with the subject "train")	People waited impatiently on the stopped train.	"stopped" = past participle adjective that describes "train"

Participle phrase BIG IDEAS

• The SAT will:
  • try to fool the student into mis-matching a subject with a non-finite participle
  • ask to combine two sentences or clauses using a participle phrase
    • i.e., going from "Eight graders take Algebra. Ninth graders then have to take Geometry."
      • to "After taking Algebra in eighth grade, ninth graders take Geometry"

Punctuation quick start guide

periods .

• periods separate sentences
• periods do ONE thing =

1. separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences

---

• What PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:

periods:

• periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
• elimination:
  • if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, the period is wrong
    • i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense
• if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
• note that "interjection" (a quick remark or interruption) or "imperative" (a command) VERBS contain an implied SUBJECT
  • so they can create a complete sentence or independent clause:
  • ex.
    • "Go to the store." = "[you] Go to the store."
    • "Stop!" = "[you} Stop!"
  • for the SAT the imperative may come in the form of a command to the reader, such as:
    • "Take this idea, for example."
      • = "[you] Take this idea, for example." << as a sentence or independent clause

semicolons ;

• combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them
  • as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts
• semicolons do (almost) ONE thing:

1. combine ICs

• note that semicolons can -- but rarely:
  • separate a list of IC's:
    • as in "IC; IC; IC; IC."
  • a semicolon may also be used as a "super comma" in order to emphasize separate elements in a list of common examples, usually following a colon:
    • as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing."
      • ex. "On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"
      • the "super comma" does not have to follow a colon, so we could write:
        • "On our trip, we will visit tons of places, including in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"
    • the "super comma" is rarely used in practice and on the SAT test (see May QAS 2022 Writing section question no. 35 )

---

• What SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

semicolons:

1. combine two ICs
   • "School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC

• can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)
  • "School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC
• elimination:
  • must have IC or complete sentences & thoughts on both sides of the semicolon
    • i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect
  • if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong

commas ,

• create pauses
• commas do FIVE things:

commas:

1. combine IC, DC, or DC, IC
   • or IC, Phr or Phr, IC
     • ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC
     • ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC
       • = prepositional phrase, independent clause
2. combine ICs
   • but only with a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC
   • ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC"
     • "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC
     • "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC
3. separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects)
   • ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O
4. act parenthetically
   • ", .... ," (like these parentheses)
     • The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V
5. introduce a direct quotation
   • ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!"

• elimination:
  • commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically (see below for examples)
  • commas can NOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
  • 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another (called "compound" subjects, verbs, objects)
    • "Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy"
      • = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb

colons :

• distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC
• colons = do ONE thing:

1. extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC
   • i.e., a colon MUST be preceded by an IC
   • i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s
     • The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"
       • = IC: list
   • just about any grammatical form can follow a colon, including
     • an IC, phrase, exclamation, multiple ICs with semicolons or coordinating conjunctions
     • a direct quotation (if that quotation is a complete sentence and if the colon is preceded by an IC
     • exceptions arenthat colons are not followed by
       • another colon
       • a dependent clause that modifies the independent clause prior to the colon

• colons DO NOT:
  • follow a dependent clause
  • interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) or connected elements in a sentence
    • ex., "I went to the store: because I needed some supplies"
      • the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..."
    • or "She knew: that it was the right thing to do"
      • the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates
    • or "They have two ideas: which are both innovative"
      • "which" creates a DC that modifies the IC prior to the colon, so it cannot be separated from that IC by a colon
        • (a comma separating the IC and DC is okay)
  • have multiple colons in a sentence

---

• What COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

colons:

1. extend or provide examples following an IC

• what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)
  • except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect)
  • or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)
  • colons are usually followed by a list or an example
  • a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:
    • The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!" = IC: IC
• elimination:
  • if NOT preceded by an IC, eliminate the colon
  • if another possible answer is a dash that is acting like a colon, then both cannot be correct, so eliminate

dashes --

• separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon
• dashes do TWO things:

1. act like a colon
2. act like parentheses (...) = -...-

---

• What DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:

dashes:

1. act like a colon
   • ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list
   • the dash is often used for emphasis (as opposed to a colon, which adds information)
2. act like parentheses (...) = -...-
   • The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive"

• elimination:
  • if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)
  • if not acting like parentheses, and there is NOT an IC preceding the dash, eliminate
  • if another possible answer is a colon and the dash is not acting like a parentheses, then both cannot be correct

Apostrophes quick start guide

• apostrophes do two things:
  • create contractions ("it's" from "it is" or "can't" from "can not")
  • show possession
    • nouns possess nouns and nouns can only possess nouns (not verbs)
    • punctuation can NOT separate the possessor noun from the possessed noun
    • adjectives may separate the two nouns, as in "The cowboy's fast horse"
  • possessive apostrophes singular v plural:
    • 's for singular nouns ("that dog's toys") and s' for plural nouns ("those dogs' toys")
• elimination:
  • if punctuation or a verb follow the possessor noun, eliminate (see examples below)
• note: use of an apostrophe to create a contraction with a noun and the verb, "to be" is informal and not measured on the SAT
  • ex., "winning's good" for "winning is good" is informal

Conjunctions quick start guide

• conjunctions combine words, phrases, and clauses
  • coordinating conjunction (CJ)
    • combines ICs (FANBOYS)
      • I was hungry, so I bought a burger
• note: the word however is NOT a conjunction,
  • therefore it must be combined with another CJ or a semicolon if combining two ICs
  • subordinating conjunction (SJ)
    • = turns an IC into a DC by requiring additional ideas to complete the thought of the clause
    • ex. "I was hungry, so I bought a burger" = two IC w/ a CC
    • whereas, if we use the CS "since" = Since I was hungry, I bought a burger"
      • = DC, IC ("Since I was hungry is not a complete thought, therefore it is a DC, or subordinate clause)
• requisite or necessary clause or phrase (Phr)
  • usually, when the SC follows the IC, there is not a comma
  • the subordinating conjunction becames a relative conjunction
    • We couldn't play when it rained
  • just as SV or SVO are not separated by punctuation (because they are necessary or required of each other to make sense):
    • some clauses and phrases are requisite or necessary to complete a thought, which means they are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
    • ex. "I bought the shoes that were on sale" << "that were on sale" is necessary to the idea that "I bought" particular shoes
  • see "Relative clause" below for more on essential and non-essential sentence elements

Prepositions / Prepositional Phrases quick start guide

• prepositions
  • include about, by, from, near, of, on , etc.
• prepositions create a relationship between nouns
  • the nouns or other words that follow the preposition are called a "prepositional phrase" ("about something I once knew")
• prepositional phrases establish a relationship with a noun or as part of a subject-verb clause:
  • ex. adding information to a subject noun: "The ideas of the professor are novel."
  • ex. adding information to a subject-verb: "The professor was educated at Yale."
• for the SAT, only prepositions that come before the verb matter
• the noun in prepositional phrases are NEVER the subject of a sentence
  • elimination:
    • for subject-verb matching, the preposition/ prepositional phrase is NOT the subject
      • ex. "Books about sailing are fun" and not "Books about sailing is fun"
        • "about" = a preposition, so "sailing" is not the subject and the verb is therefore matched to the plural "books"

Restrictive elements quick start guide

• a "restrictive" element is a sentence part that is not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or other punctuation
• restrictive elements include:
  • subject - verb - object (or subject complement)
    • are not separated from one another by punctuation
      • S V O
        • cannot be separated from one another by punctuation, ex.:
        • SoHo, is fun to say, and to visit << incorrect
        • SoHo is fun to say and to visit << correct
      • but could be separated by a parenthetical phrase or clause:
        • SoHo, a neighborhood in New York, is fun to say and to visit
        • SoHo, which is fun to say, is fun to visit
  • adjectives and adverbs
    • are not separated from the noun or verb they modify by punctuation
      • That is one big, elephant! << incorrect
      • That is one big, elephant! << correct
    • exception: could be a list of coordinate adjectives that are separated by a comma:
      • That is one big, angry elephant!
    • or, could be separated by a parenthetical element:
      • That is one big -- and I mean big! -- elephant
  • possessive nouns
    • are not separated from the noun they possess by punctuation
      • That bird flew right by my friend's, head << incorrect
      • That bird flew right by my friend's head << correct
    • exception: could be part of a list of adjective:
      • That bird flew right by my friend's big, old head
    • note: see rules below for possessives
  • prepositional phrases
    • are not separated from the noun or verb they modify
      • The book, on that table is interesting << incorrect
      • The book on that table is very interesting << correct
  • relative clauses beginning with "that"
    • note that some "restrictive relative clauses" may also begin with the relative pronouns, which, who, whose, etc.
    • but relative clauses starting with "that" are always restrictive and thus are not separated from the word or sentence part they modify by punctuation
• EXCEPTION: parenthetical elements
  • only parenthetical elements with a pair of parentheses, commas or dashes may separate restrictive elements
  • the reason is that parenthetical elements are ungrammatical -- they exist OUTSIDE of the grammatical construction of a sentence
    • thus they can intrude upon a sentence
    • but they ALWAYS have paired punctuation, commas, dashes or parentheses, that isolate them from the rest of the sentence

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