Parts of speech

Parts of Speech

• "part" = portion or role
• "speech" = verbal communication
• "Parts of Speech" = the fundamental portions and roles of words
  • adjectives, adverbs, nouns, verbs, etc.
• By isolating and identifying a word's part of speech, we become stronger readers and writers

Notes:

• Grammarians (people who study grammar) argue over the number & categories of the Parts of Speech
  • traditionally there are eight categories
  • this list separates Article and Determiner from their traditional categorization as Adjectives
  • we have also added Particle to the list, as a particle operates independently of other Parts of Speech

• Abbreviations used in this article:
  • IC = "independent clause"
  • DC = "dependent clause"
  • SV = "subject + verb"
  • SVO = "subject + verb + object"
  • DO = "direct object"
  • IO = "indirect object"
  • CB = College Board
• All practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [College Board Official Practice Test Suite]
• See also List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech category, and rules governing their use.

Adjective

modify nouns

• nouns = things
• adjectives add additional information to "qualify" or "modify" the noun in order to create a more specific meaning, ex.:
  • "I wore the shoes" v. "I wore the comfortable shoes"
    • the idea changes from "I wore shoes" (in general) to the kind of shoes I wore, i.e, "the comfortable ones"

remain singular

• adjectives do not change to match plural nouns
  • i.e. "the red shoe" >> "the red shoes" and not "the reds shoes"
    • whether or not "shoe" is singular or plural, the adjective remains the same
      • other languages require singular/plural matching, such as "la chaussure rouge" ("the red shoe) v. "las chaussures rouges" (the reds shoes)

general uses of adjectives

• adjectives clarify what kind, what characteristic, what size, which details", etc.
  • what kind: "the regular class"
  • what characteristic: "the difficult class"
  • what size: "the small class"
  • which details: "the rowdy class"
  • note:
    • numbers are not technically adjectives, although they can operate like them
      • "the third class" = a qualification of which class (among others)

nouns and verbs as adjectives

• when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
  • see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
    • ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"
  • see "past participle" under Verbs
    • ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb

adjectives following subject-verb

• sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
  • ex. "Josephus felt sad"
  • here the adjective "sad" is modifying the subject (noun) "Josephus"
  • the adjective is not modifying the verb "felt"
    • if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
      • "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt
  • verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
    • be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem
• these sentences, therefore do not have objects (nouns)
  • instead, they have a "subject complement" since the adjective "complements" the subject (a noun)
  • note that "I feel sad", "sad" is not describing the action "to feel", it is describing the subject "I"

postpositive adjectives: adjectives that follow nouns

• postpositive adjectives are uncommon but have a couple general uses:
• modifying "indefinite pronouns"
  • "someone interesting" or "something great" = the adjective follows the indefinite pronoun
  • indefinite pronouns refer to "some" -one, -body or -thing and not to a definite, or specific person or thing (this, that, they, him, you, etc.)
• postpositive adjective phrases for emphasis or comparison:
  • "The team needs a player better than that"
    • the adjective "better" describes the noun "player" but follows the noun instead of preceding
  • "A dog this big"

• compound* words in which the noun follows the adjective:
  • "attorney general"
    • "general is an adjective meaning "main" or "principle" (and not the noun meaning military commander)
    • thereby, to pluralize the compound word, the noun is plural but the adjective is not:
      • "attorneys general"
        • *note that "compound words" can be either "open", as in "boy scout" or full moon" or closed, as in "bullfrog" or "mailbox" or hyphenated, as in "long-term" or "on-campus"

Adverb

modify verbs

• adverbs provide additional information about an action (verbs), including:
  • how, when, where, degree, or state of an action
  • ex. "He shopped quickly"

modify adjectives

• adverbs can also modify adjectives:
  • in the sense of describing "the state", degree, or situation of the descriptor
  • ex. "the coach was extremely angry"
    • "extremely" describes the extent to which the coach was "angry" (an adjective)
    • therefore, the adverb "extremely" acts upon the adjective "angry" as opposed to the verb "was"

adverbs to describe how

• adverbs can answer the "how" of an action (or verb):
  • how: "Soraya studied hard" or "Soraya studied quietly"
    • note that "hard" is also an adjective that describes high density of an object: "the stone is hard"
    • but here it is used to modify the verb in that she studied "strenuously"
• adverbs never describe a noun
  • ex. "she called the broken phone stupid" = the phone is stupid,
    • v. "she stupidly called the broken phone" = she mistakenly called a broken phone
• Sources:
  • Adverb (literarydevices.net)
  • Adjective or Adverb (OWL)

adverbs to describe when

• are used to express the "when" of an action (verb)
  • ex. "Jocelyn arrived early"
    • note the -ly form of the word "early," which indicates it is an adverb
    • however, if we say, "Jocelyn arrived late", "late" is an adverb the same as "early"
• "adverbs of time":
  • yesterday, today, "tomorrow
  • these are adverbs because they modify the verb as to when the action occurred
    • note that these words can also be used as nouns
      • see the entry for "Yesterday" on [Word Parts of Speech & Their Rules Y-Z]

transitional adverb

• = connect actions and ideas
• or move a sentence or sentences from one idea to another
  • thus is a conjunction, technically, "conjunctive adverb"
    • however, they do not combine independent clauses
      • i.e., are not equivalent to "but" or any of the seven "coordinating conjunctions" (FANBOYS)
• transitional adverbs include consequently, furthermore, however, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless therefore and thus
  • are similar to other "transition words" or "transition phrases" that act as conunctions
• when used in the middle of a sentence, the transitional adverb is parenthetical
  • ex. "I was hungry, late, and, moreover, broke" (yikes!)
• sources:
  • Using Transitional Expressions (hunter.cuny.edu)
  • However (arrantpedantry.com)
  • Correct Use of However, Therefore, Moreover (perfectyourenglish.com)

• Sources:
  • Is "yesterday" a noun, an adjective or an adverb? (stackexchange.com)
  • this source argumes that "yesterday, today" etc. are nouns: Are ‘Yesterday,’ ‘Today’, and ‘Tomorrow’ Nouns or Adverbs? (parentingpatch.com

Article

• indicates a specific or general reference to a noun
  • articles are sometimes listed under the category of "determiner"
• two types of articles:

definite article (the)

• "the"
  • refers to a specific noun, usually already stated or defined

indefinite article (a & an)

• "a" or "an"
  • refers to a general noun, usually one not already stated or defined
  • note: indefinite articles are not used to refer to a general noun or one that cannot be counted
    • ex. "a water" is incorrect
    • see "count" and "noncount" nouns usage

a v. an

Rules for Articles Use w/ Count & Noncount Nouns, Abstract/Generic Nouns, & Nouns with Superlatives

ARTICLE RULE	COUNT NOUNS	NONCOUNT NOUNS
Introducing a noun or unknown Noun	Takes the indefinite article (a, an) "A man I met the other day" = who is "man" is not yet known so the indefinite article is used to express that introduction/ unspecific reference	If unknown = no article
Referring to an already known noun	Takes the definite article (the) "The man I told you about earlier"	Takes the definite article (the) "The water in the lake is warm!"
Referring to a generic category	No article "I love pickles" i.e., "pickles" can be counted but is used here as a category or type of food	no article "Water is good for you"
Abstract noun (figurative, not literal) or an adjective used as a noun to describe a general idea or condition	Definite article (the) "The ghost in the machine" "The decency in her actions"	No article "Ambition can be dangerous" "Friendship is wonderful"
Nouns with Superlative adjectives superlatives express the highest degree therefore superlatives create a singular noun	Definite article (the) "the best coffee", "the highest mountain"	Superlatives always modify singular nouns i.e, "the best" = one not multiple things
Different uses of count, non-count, etc. nouns some nouns can be expressed in all these categories thereby the use or non-use of an article shapes its meaning	"coffee" for example: "The coffee is strong!" (a specific coffee) "I like strong coffee" (coffee in general) "I like a coffee that is strong" (a kind of coffee that I like)

• a = for use before consonants (hard sounds)
  • "a cow"
  • also used before "u" when the "u" makes a "y" sound
    • "a usable" (a "yoos-able") "a union" (a "yoon-yun") or "a unified" (a "yoo-ni-fied")
      • v. or "an ugly" or "an unsatisfactory"
  • or before "o" when the "o" makes a "w" sound
    • "a one-time" or "a
• an = for use before words that begin with a vowel or a soft "h":
  • "an owl", "an hour"
  • hard "h" sounds use "a":
    • "a horse", "a historical"

indefinite articles & count, noncount & generic nouns

• if the noun cannot be counted, then it does not take an indefinite article
  • ex.
    • "rain" cannot be counted, so "a rain" is incorrect
      • as opposed to "a rainfall" which can be counted
    • "water" cannot be counted, so "a water" is incorrect
    • however, if referring to "a water" as in "a glass" or "a bottle" of water, which CAN be counted
      • therefore the indefinite article "a" works, as in "may I have a water?"
• generic categories do not take the indefinite article:
  • when the noun represents a generic or general idea or category, the article is omitted
  • ex. "They went on vacation" as opposed to "they went on a vacation"
  • "The mentor gave him good advice" as opposed to "gave him a good advice"
• for more on Articles see:
  • Purdue OWL on using articles
  • What Are Articles?
  • DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES (Butte.edu)

Conjunction

• connect or coordinate ideas, sentences, or thoughts

other types of conjunctions

• Sources:
  • Correlative Conjunctions - Examples & Exercises (gingersoftware.com)
  • types of conjunctions (wordagents.com)
  • Conjunctions and Coordination (owl.purdue)
  • Conjunctions (englishgrammar.org)

Determiner

• introduces a noun or indicates an amount, specificity, or generality of a noun
  • determiners are traditionally considered adjectives, as they modify nouns
  • however, here we are considering "determiner" as a unique category
    • but also "article" as a unique category unto itself, even though it is considered a type of determiner
• determiner categories:

demonstrative

• this, that, these, those
  • note that "which" and "that" are pronouns that may act like a determiner ("that car which goes faster")

numeral

• zero, one, two, three... (numbers)
• first, single, once, dozen
  • note that numerals are distinct from quantifiers

quantifier

• a few, a little, all, another, any, both, each, enough, every, few, half, many, more, none, several, some, such
  • enough= indicates "sufficiency"
  • a few, some, more, etc = indicate "degree"

possessive

• hers, his, my, our, theirs, whose, your
  • note that these possessive indicators are actually pronouns, but they are considered "determiners" in that they are used to specify ownership of something\

See for more on determiners:

• Determiner- Explanation and Examples (partofspeech.org)

Interjection

• words use for aside remarks or interruptions

exclamation

• • expresses a spontaneous reaction or emotion
• "no!, okay, damn!, heh!, etc.

spoken pause

• some interjections are classified as a particle (see below) because they do not carry specific meaning
  • such as "now" and "well" when used in a sentence as an interjection or pause:
    • "Now, now, settled down" or "Well, let's get going."

Yes, no affirmation/negation

• "Yes" and "No" may be classified as interjections
  • since in a sentence, they carry meaning, thus should not be considered particles
  • ex. "Yes, you may go now" "Yes" carries a specific meaning

Noun

• persons, places, things
• proper nouns

subject

• subjects of a sentence are always nouns
• the subject is the person, place or thing that does the action (which is expressed by a verb)
• note: the word "subjective" means "from one's point of view," thus, like the subject of a sentence, subject is doing the action
  • (i.e., from the "subjective point of view

object

• note: the word "objective" means "from a general point of view," thus, like the object of a sentence the object is not the actor
  • (i.e., from the "objective point of view")
• direct object
  • = the object that is the "direct" recipient of the action (verb)
    • ex. "I ate the donut"
• indirect object
  • = the object that is an "indirect" recipient of the action (verb)
    • ex. "I gave the donut to the boy"
      • the verb gave requires the direct object "the donut"
      • but it also has a recipient of the action, thus "to the boy"

lists of subjects & objects

• sentences may have multiple subjects and objects (and verbs)
• ex. "The man, his son and his daughter looked around, compared, and bought new shoes, shirts and hats."
  • secondary verbs may follow the objects of prior verbs, as in:
    • ""The man, his son and his daughter looked around the isles, compared prices, and bought new shoes, shirts and hats."

consecutive nouns

• nouns can be next to one another in a sentence
• if so, they may represent either:
  • indirect + direct objects ("She told her father the truth")
  • attributive nouns (the first noun acting as an adjective: "dog food")
    • also called "adjunct" or "apposite" noun
  • a list of nouns, however, these will be separated by commas ("dogs, cats, and horses")
  • possessive nouns (one noun possesses another: "the dog's bone" or "his book")
  • appositive phrase (used to add information, usually parenthetically: "Bob, the local handy man, fixed my lawn mower"
    • note that 'lawn mower = attributive noun phrase with "lawn" acting as an adjective

consecutive nouns as direct and indirect objects

• consecutive nouns can act as multiple objects of a verb
  • i.e., two nouns next to one another
  • as in "I gave the boy a donut"
• when the action has a direct and indirect object, the indirect object is often preceded by "to" in order to indicate the direct object
  • however, we frequently drop the "to", which remains implied in the sentence
    • so instead of "I gave a donut to the boy" we simply say, "I gave the boy a donut"
  • another ex. "She gave the man grief"
    • can also be expressed as "She gave grief to the man"
    • the noun "grief" is what was given (direct object) and the noun "man" is to whom the grief was given (indirect object)

Click expand for an example of multiple nouns as objects from CB Writing practice test 10, question 36:

Tuition-reimbursement programs signal that employers offer their [36] [workers’ opportunities] for personal and professional development.

A) worker's opportunities [NO CHANGE]
B) workers opportunities’
C) workers opportunities
D) worker’s opportunity’s

• elimination
  • x A) the possessive "worker's" confuses the direct object "opportunities" with the indirect object "workers"; in other words, "employers" don't offer "workers" they offer "opportunities"
  • x B) and x D) the noun "opportunities" cannot possess the preposition "for"
• Correct answer C) = SUBJECT: employers VERB: offer INDIRECT OBJECT: workers DIRECT OBJECT: opportunities

consecutive noun as modifier (attributive noun)

• one type of consecutive nouns may be a noun acting as a modifier, as if an adjective (but not one)
• such nouns are called "attributive" nouns
  • also called "adjunct" (supporting of) nouns or "apposite" (related to)
• attributive nouns modify or qualify another noun
  • modify = change or add to the meaning of
  • qualify = limit the meaning of
  • attributive = provides an "attribute" or characteristic or quality to the other noun
• ex.: "dog food"
  • i.e.: "dog food" = "a type of food that is for dogs"
  • "dog" thereby indicates an attribute, or type or characteristic, of "food"
• example of multiple objects + a attributive nouns:
  • "The pitcher threw the batter a hardball pitch"
  • S: pitcher V: threw IO: catcher ADJ: hardball (appositive noun) DO: pitch
    • could also be expressed as: "the pitcher threw a (hardball) pitch to the catcher"
      • "hardball" = a noun, but here it is describing the direct object "pitch"
      • thus "hardball" is acting like an adjective
• the attributive noun is (almost) always singular
  • = because it is acting like an adjective, which always remains in the singular form ("red shoes" as opposed to "reds shoes")
  • = as a category or type, the noun must remain singular
  • exception for plural attributive nouns = special words such as "arms race" or "rewards card"
  • possessive attributive noun:
    • ex.: "the National's game"
    • these are often morphed into plural attributive, thus "National's game" becomes "Nationals game", "reward's card" becomes "rewards card", or "lady's night" becomes "ladies night"
  • multiple attributives
    • ex.: "beef dog food" or "
    • news headlines often use multiple attributives, such as "South Park man Kenneth "Kenny" McCormick dies again"
• strict grammatical terms does now apply the "attributive" label for "adjective homograph" nouns (such as "iron" or "paper") or "compounds" or "open compounds"
  • see https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/explanatory-notes/dict-attributive-nouns
• attributive nouns are not adjectives
  • the only syntactic form of an adjective that the attributive noun employs is the "prepositive" position
    • i.e., preceding the noun it modifies
      • big dog, small house
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as post-positive adjectives (following the noun):
    • whereas an adjective can be a subject complement:
      • boring meeting >> the meeting is boring
    • dog food >> food dog or business meeting >> meeting business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot operate as subject complements (as do adjectives)
    • the food is dog or the meeting is business << don't work
  • attributive nouns cannot take on a comparative form (as do adjectives)
    • whereas nouns can go from big to bigger
      • big test >> bigger test
    • attributive nouns cannot: businesser meeting << doesn't work
• see also additional entry on
  • "appositive phrase"
  • compound noun
  • noun adjunct
• see:
  • Noun adjunct (wiki)
  • Nouns as Modifiers (meg.com)

Appositive nouns & phrases

• = a noun that is next to another noun to add information to it
  • may be intermixed with modifiers (adjectives, prepositions)
  • distinct from an attributive noun in that the appositive noun clarifies but is not acting as an adjective
  • ex. "my friend Steve"
    • "my", "friend," and "Steve" are all nouns
    • "Steve" is the appositive noun that identifies who the "friend" is
    • "my friend Steve" is the appositive phrase
• appositive phrases may provide parenthetical information
  • "Joe Blow, a rather common fellow, is uncommonly wise"
    • the appositive phrase "a rather common fellow" adds information to the subject, "Joe Blow"
    • note that this appositive phrase contains an adjective, "common"
• appositive phrases are frequently used to provide a title or identifying profession or position
  • "Sanjay Patar, the famed tennis player, retired last year"
• appositive phrases are not always set aside by commas:
  • "The popular state legislator Joellin Jones was reelected"

possessive nouns

• nouns may possess (or own) one another
  • ex. "Jake's house"
  • possession is indicated by the "apostrophe"
    • other languages express it as "the house of Jake"
    • English indicates the "genitive" case, which in Latin marks possession\
  • singular v. plural possession
• to indicate possession:
  • singular nouns add 's (apostrophe + s) << "the horse's saddle"
  • plural nouns add s' (s + apostrophe) << "the horses' field"
  • if a singular noun already ends with an s, possession is indicated by adding either an apostrophe + s ('s) or just the apostrophe (')
    • ex. "Jesus's sermon"
    • or "Jesus' sermon"
      • either form is correct
  • see https://www.grammarbook.com/blog/apostrophes/apostrophes-with-words-ending-in-s/
• possessions v. contractions ending in -s
  • pronoun contraction using apostrophes + s
    • it's = the contraction for "it is"
    • he's or she's = contractions for "he is" and "she is"
      • the possession forms are "his" and "hers"
    • "who's" = "who is"
      • the possessive form = "whose"
    • other contractions such as that's, when's, how's, etc. express possession with the verb "have," as in "that has", "when has" or "how has"
• to do: add about other apostrophe uses, such as '49, 'nuff said

plurality, count distinction & generality

• plurality = noun shifts from singuar to plural, usually marked by the suffix "-s"
  • i.e., a dog, two dogs
• "count distinction" is sometimes called "the grammar of counting"
• regards singular v. plural nouns and distinctions between plural nouns of things than can be individually counted or not
  • generally marked by the suffix "s" for plural
• "count distinction" and determiners
  • generally the "count distinction" is between objects and substances
    • objects can be counted and differentiated (one of that object can be isolated from another of that object group)
    • substances that have no set distinction and therefore cannot be counted
  • plural nouns that can be counted use the determiner "many"
    • as in "many people" << the number of people can be counted
    • plural nouns that can NOT be counted use the determiner "much"
      • as in "much water" << one cannot count "water", although "much" indicates a large amount of water

Particle

• a word that has little or no specific meaning and that is used to emphasize or assist another word, usually a verb
  • if the particle is removed from the sentence or phrase, it generally means the same thing
    • (except for infinitive particles, which create an infinitive)
• particles do not change with inflection (word endings for case, gender, number)
• sometimes called a "function word"
  • because it doesn't have a specific meaning unto itself
• note: as with Determiners, Particles are frequently not included in lists of Parts of Speech
  • however, since the function of a particle is Particular, we are placing it here as a distinct Part of Speech

adverbial particles

• typically, particles are prepositions that do not accompany a noun
  • instead, they follow a verb to indicate a direction, topic, or other prepositional purpose for the verb
  • particles: away, down, in, off, up, etc. as in:
    • "get away, wake up, knock out, look up, sit down
    • these examples are, together, phrasal verbs
  • particle + preposition
    • particles frequently are followed by a prepositional phrase, in which the particle (a preposition) is next to a preposition
      • keep up with the pack, put up with her stubbornness, look forward to leaving

discourse particle

• a word that acts as a verbal marker that doesn't have specific meaning
  • tends to be informal, or oral and not written
  • Now, my friend, let us talk
  • Well, now, what are we to do about this?

infinitive particle

• "to" is a preposition as well as an "infinitive marker"
• i.e., it creates the infinitive form of a verb, to be, to love, to talk
  • it's more common to simply describe this combination of particle + verb as an "infinitive"

negative particle

• not = indicates the opposite or negation
  • "I will not get up today"
    • note that both "no" and "up" are particles

• see:
  • https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/particle-grammar/

Preposition

• creates a prepositional phrase, which:
  • express relationship in time, place, or sequence
  • adds information to a sentence
  • relate to other word forms to one another, including nouns (usually), adjectives, and verbs
• list of prepositions:

about, above, according to, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, in front of, inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out of, outside, over, past, since, through, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, without

• compound prepositions:
  • ahead of, apart from, by means of, due to, from above (etc.) , in excess of, in front of, in regard to, prior to, similar to, with reference to, etc.
• categories of prepositions:

Some types or categories of prepositions

Prepositions of...	Relationship	Prepositions	Examples
time or sequence	when, how long	at, after, amid, before. between, during, from, since, throughout, until	at the time, during the game
place or location	contained or touching	aboard, across, amidst, among, at, in, on, inside, upon, within	across the sinside the box,
	higher or lower not touching	above, below, beneath, over, under, underneath, up	above the house, under the bed
	other proximity not touching	across, along, alongside, behind, between, near, nearby, opposite	across the street, near the office
	not near	before, beyond, over, past,
direction or movement		at, between, for, into, onto
manner or way		by, except, for, in, like, on, with, via
relationship or purpose		for, in relation to, like, regarding, with, without	for learning, without laughing
ownership	owned, created	by, of,
focus of attention		regarding, to,	He apologized to her

Preposition comparisons per category & use

about	place	near, within	about there, moving about
about	ideas, emotions	subject of, related to	concerned about, complained about, argue about
with	state or condition	agreement, engagement	argue with, agree with
with	things	accompanying, together	going with, deal with, business is concerned with insurance

• See Preposition definitions and use
  

click EXPAND for list of prepositions:

Quick list of (single word) prepositions

across	after	among
before	behind	beneath
by	down	during
from	in	into
like	next	near
of	off	on
over	past	since
throughout	to	toward/s
under	until	up
upon	with	within/out

Quick list of combined words that act as a single-word preposition

according to	as of	ahead of
aside from	at the risk of	by means of
except for	in addition to	in case of
next to	on top of	up against

• See
  • [Preposition and postposition (wiki)]
  • [Prepositions and Prepositional phrases (englishgrammar101.com)]

prepositional phrase

• = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
• = dependent clauses, so are separated from a main or dominant clause by a comma
• prepositional phrases that modify verbs are called ""adverbial phrases"
• see
  • [Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]

other exceptions

• prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
  • and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
    • "During the summer is the best time to play outside"
    • "After I exercise is when I feel best"
• see:
  • Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)
  • How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)
  • Types of Prepositions (inkforall.com)

Prepositions as adverbs & subordinating conjunctions

• prepositions and verb types:
  • transitive verb = must be accompanied by an object
    • the preposition will not be the direct object
      • I give a bone to the dog
  • intransitive verb = does not take an object
    • the preposition will act as an adverb (modifier) of the intransitive verb:
      • He waits for the bus
        • the prepositional phrase doesn't match the subject; instead if modifies the verb "waits"
  • linking verb = does not need an object
    • linking verbs include is, become, seem, smell, etc.
      • they do not take an adverb
        • i.e., "You seem happily" makes no sense
        • instead, "You seem happy"
          • "happy" = subject complement adjective
      • linking verbs "link" to a noun or adjective
        • "I feel happy" or "He is a doctor"
    • as a modifier the prepositional phrase adds additional information to the subject complement noun
      • I feel happy about my test
      • He is a doctor in Nebraska
• "overlapping" grammatical roles for prepositions
  • some words and grammar forms "overlap" or operate in or as multiple grammatical forms
• "intransitive preposition"
  • = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
  • intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
  • i.e., they act as adverb modifiers or subject complements
• most dictionaries qualify intransitive prepositions as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
  • ex. of intransitive preposition: "They went ahead" or "The dog is outside"
  • with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions:
    • "They went ahead of the others" or "The dog is outside the fence"
• overlap of prepositions and subordinating conjunctions
• = a "conjunctive preposition"
  • ex.: "I got my license before last year" (before= preposition that defines when "I went to school")
  • vs.: "I got my license before last year ended" (before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first)
  • we can view "before" as subordinating the phrase, "last year ended," which is technically a complete thought and sentence
  • however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a #subordinating conjunction.
  • ex.: "She paid the bill after dinner"
  • vs.: "She paid the bill after she ate dinner"
  • ex.: "He played like a pro"
  • vs.: "He played like he was a pro"

Prepositions as "particle" (w/o object complement)

• particles are words that don't fit into the general categories of parts of speech
  • the most common are prepositions that do not have an object
• prepositions as "particles" generally add information to a verb
  • ex. "wake up", "stand around", "back down"
  • in these examples, the preposition does not have an object
    • and it modifies the verb
    • thereby it acts as either an adverb or an actual verb part
      • as a verb part, we can see that "to wake" has a different meaning that "to wake up"

Pronoun

• "pro" = for; "noun"
• pronouns refer to a noun in order to avoid repetition of the noun
  • ex., "The horse likes to eat oats. It then likes to sleep." as opposed to "The horse likes to eat oats. The horse likes to sleep."
• pronoun forms include:
  • subject
  • object
  • possessive
  • comparisons
  • see How to Pick Pronouns for Comparisons (Dummies)

pronoun antecedents or precedents to nouns or ideas

• pronouns reference a previously or sometimes later stated noun or idea
  • pronoun antecedent (noun comes before the pronoun) to a previously stated noun:
    • "The sky is entirely blue. It's a pretty color."
  • pronoun antecedent to a previously stated idea:
    • "The sky is entirely blue. It makes me happy."
  • pronoun precedent (pronoun comes before the noun) to a subsequently stated noun (uncommon):
    • "It went well, but the test was still hard."

pronouns than can also be a determiner or a conjunction

• pronouns can also be determiners, subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns that act distinctly
  • "that" can be:
    • "That is the question!" << "that" = pronoun/ subject of the sentence
    • "That point is irrelevant" << "that"= adjective / determiner (specifies "point")
    • "The point that is irrelevant is not the question" << "that" = relative pronoun/subject of the relative clause ("that is irrelevant")
  • "any" can be:
    • "Any difficulty is to be ignored." << "any" = determiner / adjective
      • note that the subject is "difficulty" and not "any"
    • "Any of you guys want candy?" << "any" = pronoun / subject
      • "of you guys" = prepositional phrase, which is never the subject of a sentence
      • "any" can act as a singular or plural pronoun
        • "Any is better than none"
        • "Any of them are crazy"

click EXPAND for example of "any" as a determiner and not subject pronoun on CB practice test 9, question 35:

						Any New
York City construction project using municipal funds
[35] ____  required to consider whether historical artifacts
will be affected during construction... 

A) are
B) have been
C) is
D) were

• the subject of the clause is "project" and not "any" or "funds"
  • therefore, the subject-verb agreement is "project is" (third person singular conjugation "is")
• A) are is designed to fool the student into match "any" or "funds" as plural (conjugating as "are")
  • here, "any" is a determiner/adjective that modifies "project"
    • thus, "any", "New York City," and "construction" are all adjective modifiers
      • any = determiner(adjective) that describes "project"
      • New York City = attributive noun that describes "project"
      • construction = attributive that describes "project"
  • here, "funds" is an object of the present participle adjective "using" (verb acting like an adjective)
    • thus, "using" and "funds" are a modifying phrase to describe "project"

pronouns in comparisons

• "She is better at it than me" vs "She is better at it than I"?
  • both work:
    • "than I' = "She is better than I am" << = "than" is a conjunction
    • "than me" = She is better at it than me" < = "than" is a preposition
• see List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules - School4Schools.com Teacher Lesson Planner & Student Study Guide

Verb

• express action or a state of being (a condition)
• verb forms:
  • verbs, or an action of a subject, can be expressed by a single verb or by a phrase, or multiple words, that expresses an action
  • verb phrases are known as "predicates"
  • technically = "predicate"
    • predicate = "the portion of a sentence which makes a claim about the subject" Predicate (grammar) (wikipedia)

verb "moods"

• "grammatical moods" = a feature of verbs whereby the speaker "inflects" or expresses an idea by modifying tone and emphasis for a specific meaning
• there are four general grammatical moods for verbs:

indicative mood

• a statement of fact
• often in the form of a "declarative" sentence
  • ex. "I am hungry!"
    • the speaker emphasizes "I" and "am"

imperative mood

• a command or advice
  • ex. "You should really get to work"
  • the speaker will emphasize the adverb and object

subjunctive mood

• expresses emotion, possibility or opinion
  • possibility = something that has not happened"
  • ex. "Once we get this done..."

optative mood

• expresses a wish or hope for something
  • ex. "May the best man win!"
  • the speaker's inflection frequently rises with the last word
  • may often also be subjunctive
• see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language#Morphology

transitive and intransitive verbs

• indicates if an action (verb) is expressed with or without a direct object
  • transitive verbs or transitive verb forms act upon a direct object:
    • ex. "The soccer player kicked the ball hard"
  • intransitive verbs or intransitive verb forms do not have a direct object
    • ex. "The soccer player played hard" (a direct object is not required for the sentence to make sense
    • intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice
      • ex., "The dog barked" is a complete sentence and "barked" does not require a direct object
      • however, we cannot say, "the dog was barked"
• why does transitive/intransitive verb usage matter?
  • a common error is to attach a preposition to a transitive verb:
    • since they have direct objects, a transitive verb cannot be separated from its object, ex.:
      • incorrect: "That professor teaches about Biology"
      • correct: "That professor teaches Biology" (the direct object is not separated from the verb)
      • other incorrect examples:
        • "She told about her trip." v. "She told us about her trip."
        • "His dad bought

infinitives

• infinitives use "to"
  • ex. "I go to see the game"
• root forms act like infinitives but without the "to"
  • infinitive and base forms are generally interchangeable:
  • ex. "He helped her clean her desk" (root form)
  • v. "He helped her to clean her desk" (infinitive form)
• note that "root" and "base" forms are used interchangeably
  • except "base form" of a verb includes infinitive and simple present forms of the verb
• bare infinitive
• see:
  • https://www.thefreedictionary.com/bare+infinitive#:
  • What is a bare infinitive? - English Lessons Brighton

present tense forms

• simple present
  • denotes a single action that is repeated, always happens, or the present condition of something
  • examples
    • repeated action: "I eat lunch at noon."
    • action that always (or, in the negative, never) happens: "I can't speak Latin"
  • denotes the condition or state of something: "The car is clean" or "I feel great!"
  • simple present form is also considered as a "base" verb form
• present progressive
  • = -ing form for a verb to express an ongoing action
    • used with "to be" conjugations ("am" "is", etc.) the -ing verb form denotes an ongoing action
    • ex. "She is dancing"
    • see participle for the -ing form of a verb that acts as an adjective or a noun (called a gerund)
  • note that present progressive verb forms are frequently used to combine sentences or independent clauses
  • click EXPAND to see examples of present progressive verbs used to combine independent clauses

• ex. "I went to see the sequel, and I hoped it would be as good as the first
• the two independent clauses (complete sentences) can be combined by converting the "I hoped" to the present progressive form, "hoping"
• "I went to see the sequel, hoping it would as good as the first"
• note that "hoping" renders the second clause dependent (not a complete sentence or thought), thus employing only a comma and not a comma + conjunction
• present progressive verbs subordinate clauses:
  • "Hoping it would be as good as the first" is not a complete sentence or thought
    • thus it is a dependent or subordinate clause

• see also:
  • [present participles vs present progressives (thoughtco.com]
• present perfect
  • indicates an action that happened at one point or that just happened and that consequences on the present
  • usually uses the "has" or "have" forms of a verb
    • "Yes, I have eaten dinner already"
    • "I have played soccer since I was five"
    • "I haven't seen her in years"

past tense forms

• past simple
  • an action that happened in the past
  • click EXPAND for past simple examples:

• • • "I ate before they showed up"
    • "I played soccer yesterday"
    • "I lived in Brazil"

• past progressive
  • actions that were ongoing at some point in the past or that were repeated in the past
  • uses the -ing form of a verb
• * click Expand for past progressive examples:

past progressive examples:

• • • "I was eating when they showed up"
    • "I was playing soccer all last year"
    • "I was living in Brazil"

• past perfect
• an action that happened before something else happened (both in the past)
• uses "had" to show the earlier event
  • and compares it to another even with "before", "because" or "by the time", etc.
• click Expand for past perfect examples:

• • "I had already eaten when they showed up"
  • "I had played soccer long before I learned rugby"
  • "Because I had lived in Brazil, I already knew some Spanish"

future tense forms

• future simple
  • an action that will take place in the future, usually with "will"
• click Expand for future simple examples:

• • • "I will eat after they show up"
    • I will play soccer tomorrow"
    • I will live in Brazil next year"
  • future simple also indicates a promise to do something in the future
    • "I will play harder next time"

• future progressive
  • an action that will be ongoing in the future, usually with "will" and "-ing"
• click Expand for future progressive examples:

• • • "I will be eating with them when they show up"
    • "I will be playing soccer again after my ankle heals"
    • "I will be living in Brazil all next year"

• future perfect
  • an action that will happen before something else, usually with "will have"
  • future perfect combines the future "will" with a past tense verb form
  • future perfect also indicates an ongoing future state or condition
• click Expand for future perfect examples:

• "I will have eaten before they show up"
• "I will have played much better by the time we got to the playoffs"
• "I will have lived in Brazil by the end of next summer"
  • or
• "If they show up late, I will have been eating already."
• "By next year, I will have played soccer for 12 years"
• "I will have lived in Brazil a full year as of next week"

• future perfect progressive
  • an action that will be going on until something else happens
  • uses the "will have been" and -ing form of the verb
• click Expand for future perfect progressive examples:

• "I will have been eating by the time they show up"
• "By the end of the season, I will have been playing better"
• "By next week, I will have been living in Brazil a full year"

participles and gerunds

• verb forms that act like an adjective, adverb or noun
• types:
• participles
  • present participle:
    • verb form using -ing that can also act as an adjective or an adverb
  • past participle:
    • past tense verb form that can also act as an adjective or an adverb
  • gerund
    • present participle verb form (using -ing) that acts as a noun

present participle

• uses the -ing form of a verb as an adjective or an adverb
  • present participles describe nouns, noun phrases, or verbs (actions)
• present participles as adjectives:
  • "The boiling water is hot" (describes the water)
  • "This trip is exciting" (modifies or describes the trip)
  • "The directions are confusing" (modifies the directions)
• present participles as adverbs:
  • note: here grammar becomes debatable: this form of a particle can be seen as an adverb or a gerund (noun):
  • Smiling, she went about her work" (modifies how she "went about her work")
  • or "She went about her work smiling"

participles and adverbs

• present participles may themselves be modified by an adverb
  • ex.: ** or "She went about her work smiling enormously"

<< to confirm

past participle

• verbs in the past tense used as an adjective
  • = the simple past tense of a verb is used to show a condition of something
  • typically are -ed -en and -t forms
  • includes irregular verbs in the past tense, such as "to be" "to go" etc.
• ex:
  • "Boiled water is sanitized" ("boiled" and "sanitized" describe the noun, water)
  • "The glass was broken when I found it" ("was broken" describes the noun, glass)
  • "The cut flowers are pretty" ("cut modifies the noun, flowers)

gerunds

• • verbs that act as nouns
  • use the -ing form of the verb
• ex:
  • "to swim" + -ing = "swimming" = a noun for the act of swimming
  • "Swimming is fun"
  • "Boiling the water sanitizes it" ("boiling" is an act, therefore a noun, from the verb "to boil")
• gerunds are used as objects of verbs, ex:
  • "The student hesitated raising her hand"
• Note: gerunds are often interchangeable with infinitives
  • "The student hesitated raising her hand" vs "The student hesitated to raise her hand", or:
  • "I hate doing math" vs "I hate to do math"
  • however, note that gerunds and infinitives may act differently in terms of the object of the sentence:
• gerunds are used with prepositions, ex:
  • "Before leaving, he turned off the lights" << "before" is a preposition
  • "Joanna stepped carefully after dropping the glass" <<"after" = preposition
• click on EXPAND for how gerunds and infinitives change the meaning of a sentence using College Board Writing practice test 6 question 21:

"Burland advocated using soil extraction:"

• A) NO CHANGE
  • "Burland advocated using..." = he advocates for the use of soil extraction (he advocates the the object)
• B) advocated to use
  • "Burland advocated to use..." = he advocates "to use" (he advocates the action)
• A) NO CHANGE is correct because it is the object of the sentence, "soil extraction," that Burland advocates, not the action of its use (to use")

telling the difference between a gerund & a participle

• since participles act as adjectives, they are not essential to make a complete sentence or thought
• since gerunds act as nouns, they are essential to make a complete sentence or thought (as a subject or object or other noun form)
• to test whether verb is acting as a gerund or participle:
  • is it modifying a
  • remove it from the sentence

using gerunds and participles

• the reason we use gerunds and participle is to express either the state of an action ("swimming") or what an action does/did to a noun ("boiled water")
• gerunds and participles allow for simpler expression of those ideas than if they were expressed as subject-verbs
• gerunds may act as subordinating conjunction
  • such as "Scrambling up the hill, he barely made it to the top."
    • "Scrambling up the hill" is not a complete thought or sentence, so it is subordinate to the main clause, "he barely made it to the top.
  • as opposed to "He scrambled up the hill, and he barely made it to the top"
  • or "He scrambled up the hill and barely made it to the top"
    • each form expresses a different emphasis upon sentence parts
• -ing forms as adverbs may concisely express a "relative clause" (a sentence part that is related to

participles as dangling modifiers

• participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers"
  • = adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they modify, ex:
    • "Smiling happily, she won the choral competition"

= unclear if she won the competition becuase she was "smiling happily" or she was "smiling happily" when she won the tournament

• see https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/d Dangling participle (english-grammar-revolution.com)
• See
  • [Gerund examples (yourdictionary.com)]
  • Grammar: Verb Forms: "-ing," Infinitives, and Past Participles (Walden Univ)
  • Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing (Walden Univ)
  • The -ing forms (ef.edu Resources for Learning English
  • Grammar-Monster.com participles

>> to do: from: https://classroom.synonym.com/can-word-verb-adjective-3119.html

Sometimes, it can be difficult to tell the difference between a gerund and a participle. A good rule of thumb to follow is that a participle can be omitted and the sentence will still make sense.

The old lady showed me the way to the museum still works without the participle "smiling," but the same doesn't work for a gerund. If you omit “smoking” from the sentence, He was scolded for smoking, it won’t make sense.

The sentence, Visiting relatives can be boring, is ambiguous because visiting can be interpreted here as a gerund or as a participle. If you interpreted it as "going to relatives houses can be boring," you saw it as a gerund that appears in the subject position in the sentence. You can replace it with a simple noun to confirm it (e.g. Math can be boring). If you interpreted it as "relatives who come to your house can be boring," you saw it as a participle that serves as an adjective modifying the noun "relatives." In this case, you can omit it (Relatives can be boring) and the sentence will still make sense.

subjunctive

• also called "subjunctive mood"
• expresses a hypothetical or possible scenario
  • called "mood" because it often expresses an emotion or desire for something to happen or exist
• subjunctive phrases usually pair verbs of opposing tenses, as in "if I had, I would"
  • ex.: "If I had studied harder, I would have done better on the test."
    • "had studied" = past perfect (an action that happened at one time)
    • "would have studied" = conditional perfect tense (also "past tense modal")
      • "would" = past tense of "will" thereby represents an imaginary action from the past
• see
  • [English subjunctive(wiki)]

verb conjugations

• students of Latin, Spanish or French verb conjugations while not learning about them in English
• English has conjugations, as do other Indo-European languages
  • however, the conjugations in English do not vary as much
• conjugations work by changing the verb suffix or form to match subject case

>> to chart out comparison of Latin, Spanish, French and English cases << to do

• see
  • Verb conjugations (Conjugator.net)
  • Have conjugation (wikitionary.com)

linking verb

• "links" the subject to a complement and not to an object of the action
  • i.e., the verb does not indicate an action
• some verbs can be either a state or an action,i.e, can be either a linking or action verb
  • "You smell bad" = linking verb
  • "I smell it" = action verb
• linking verbs and passive voice << to do
  • see: https://langeek.co/en/grammar/course/102/linking-verbs
• linking verbs include:
  • to be, get, smell, taste << to do llist

how to tell the difference between linking and action verb

• linking verbs indicate a state or description: "the playground is fun"
  • they do not indicate an action, as in "The park closed the playground"
  • however, what if we expressed that in the passive voice, "the playground is closed" ?
    • closed = simple past tense (past participle) of "to close"
    • clearly, the park "closed" the playground = an action

testing for linking v. action verb w/ a past participle / passive voice

• test 1: can it take an adverb?
  • linking verbs do not support adverbs (modify the verb)
  • therefore, if verb can take an adverb it is not a linking verb:
    • "My bike was quickly stolen" = action verb, so "was" is an auxiliary and not a linking verb
• test 2: condition or action?
  • if the past participle represents an action taken by the subject, then it is a action verb
    • "My bike is stolen" = the bicycle cannot steal itself, so "stolen" = past participle adjective here
• test 3: passive voice
  • if the past participle represents an action imposed upon the subject we can see it as an action expressed in the passive voice:
    • "My bike was stolen by the punk" = "The punk stole my bike"
      • expresses an action upon and not a condition of the subject "bike"
• conclusion:
  • the difference here between a linking and action verb with a past participle or in the passive voice is technical
  • although we can see it both ways, we can see how each interpretation forms a slightly different meaning
  • it would also seem that the tense of the linking verb matters:
    • "My bike was/ will be stolen" indicates an action whereas "My bike is stolen" indicates a state:
      • "My bike is painted red" = past participle adjective w/ linking verb "is"
      • "My bike is painted red" = the result of the act of being painted

• 
• 

• see: https://blogs.stockton.edu/grammar/linking-verbs-and-participles/

modal verb

• asdf
• asdf

>> Modal Verbs: Definition & Usage Examples | Grammarly Blog

Other word forms

Discourse marker

• a form of a "filler" word or phrase that functions to guide "discourse" or conversational flow
• examples include:
  • and, basically, because, but, exactly, I mean, I'm not sure, in the end, look, now, oh well, or, so, uhh, wow, you know
• discourse markers don't have a particular semantic function
• instead, they help to advance or direct a conversation through
  • affirm or stress a statement or thought
    • exactly, wow
  • cognitive marker (demonstrating the processing of a thought)
    • I mean, oh, uh
  • connect or contrast an idea or topic
    • and, but
  • express causality or sequence
    • because, so, then, well
  • introduce or conclude a topic
    • now, oh well, then
  • reformulate or rephrase a discussion
    • basically, I mean
  • summarize
    • in the end, so
• see : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_marker

Filler words

• • to do

Parts of Speech resources

• asdf

Parts of Speech lesson plans

• asdf
• asdf
• asdf
• asdf