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Grammar for high school admissions tests: Difference between revisions

Grammar for high school admissions tests (view source)

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→‎Subject-verb matching
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== Sentence construction ==
== Sentence ==


=== sentence ===
=== sentence ===
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*** ''The dog is playing.''  
*** ''The dog is playing.''  
**** as opposed to ''Since he is playing,'' which is not a complete thought.
**** as opposed to ''Since he is playing,'' which is not a complete thought.
* note: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb
** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
 
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
=== finite verb ===
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
 
* a sentence must contain a '''finite verb'''
* verb that has a subject
** '''finite verb'''
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
*** = verb that has a subject
*** finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> of the sentence or clause
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''non-finite verb''' is a verb that <u>does not have a subject</u>
** see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs


=== non-finite verb ===
== Clause ==
 
* verb that does not have a subject
* non-finite verbs include
** '''present participle adjective''': ''That '''boring''' class is tedious''
** '''gerund''' (present participle as a noun): ''Cooking is a good skill to have''
** '''past participle adjective''': ''The comedian left the audience''
**infinitive: can be an adjective, adverb, or noun
***the concept of infinitives will not be measured on the high school entrance exam
 
* non-finite verbs act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns
** they DO NOT directly indicate an action by someone or something
** however, they <u>indicate</u> a sense of an action
 
=== clause ===
 
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
**
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause'''
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause'''
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* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* ex. '''''The dog is playing happily''', since I gave him a bone''
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
** ex. '''''The dog is playing happily''', since I gave him a bone''
*** "The dog is playing happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.


==== dependent clause (DC) ====
==== dependent clause (DC) ====


* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itsel
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* ex. ''The dog is playing happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* ex. ''The dog is playing happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* <u>test</u>:
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
*** ''Since it is raining.''
**** it contains a finite verb, ("is" with its subject "it"), so it is a clause
**** but "Since it is raining" is not a complete thought or sentence
***** leaves the reader wondering, "since what?"
**** so it is a dependent clause


=== phrase ===
=== types of dependent clauses ===


* '''subordinate clause'''
** created by a '''subordinating conjunction'''
*** ''although, as, because, since, until, when, whereas, etc.''
*** note that these are adverbs, so subordinate clauses are also called adverb or adverbial clause
* '''relative clause'''
** created by a '''relative pronoun'''
*** that, which, who
** see also section on restrictive and non-restrictive commas
* "noun clause" is another type of clause that is not imeasured on high school or college assessment tests
** FYI, a noun clause is a clause that acts like a single thing as either subject or object
*** '''''The main thing I like about that professor''' is her attitude.'' << '''noun clause''' (finite verb "is")
== Phrase ==
* two or more words that <u>do not contain a finite verb</u>
* two or more words that <u>do not contain a finite verb</u>
* important phrases for the high school entrance exam include
* important phrases for the high school entrance exam include
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** '''appositive phrase'''  
** '''appositive phrase'''  
*** a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence
*** a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my nextdoor neighbor,''' is friendly''
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my next door neighbor,''' is friendly''
*** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence
*** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence
**** ''A '''world expert physician''', Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.'''''
**** ''A '''world expert physician''', Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.'''''
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**** ''Thinking '''about math''' gives me a headache''
**** ''Thinking '''about math''' gives me a headache''


== sentence parts ==
== Clause parts ==
 
=== predicate ===


* the verb and its direct modifiers, objects and complements
* there are four or five parts of a clause (depending on who you ask)
* finite verbs form the basis of a predicate
** subject, verb, object, complement, and adjunct
** here, we will discuss verb as basis of a predicate, which can include objects, complements and adjuncts


=== subject ===
=== subject ===
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|''win''
|''win''
|}
|}
=== predicate ===
* the verb and its direct modifiers, objects and complements
* '''finite verbs''' form the basis of a predicate


=== complement ===
=== complement ===
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* "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with"
* "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with"
* complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases
* complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases
* ex:
 
** ''The dog is '''nice'''''
* ex: ''The dog is '''nice'''''
***"nice" is not the object of the linking verb "is"  
**"nice" is not the object of the linking verb "is"
**''My friend considers her brother '''crazy'''''
**''My friend considers her brother '''crazy'''''
***"crazy" is the object complement to "brother"
**''The book is '''on the table'''''
***"on the table" (prepositional phrase) is the subject complement


=== object ===
=== object ===
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*** ''= The teacher taught grammar to the class''
*** ''= The teacher taught grammar to the class''


*ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects  
*ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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== Verbs ==
== Verbs ==
=== Subject-verb matching ===
for other notes, please see Sentence construction and Sentence parts sections above for:


==== verb conjugations ====
* objects
* linking verbs and complements
 
=== finite verb ===
* verb that has a subject
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
 
=== non-finite verb ===
 
* verb that does not have a subject
* non-finite verbs include
** '''present participle adjective''': ''That '''boring''' class is tedious''
** '''gerund''' (present participle as a noun): ''Cooking is a good skill to have''
** '''past participle adjective''': ''The comedian left the audience''
**infinitive: can be an adjective, adverb, or noun
***the concept of infinitives will not be measured on the high school entrance exam
 
* non-finite verbs act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns
** they DO NOT directly indicate an action by someone or something
** however, they <u>indicate</u> a sense of an action
=== subject-verb matching (conjugation) ===


* finite verbs match the subject case
* finite verbs match the subject case
* test: when considering subject-verb matching
* "conjugation" means the form of a verb to match the subject, especially pronouns
* test: when considering subject-verb matching, run through conjugation of the pronouns, ''I, you, it, we, they''
** ''I go, you go, it goes, we go, they go''


==== tense ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular v. Plural "to see"
!Singular
!
!
!Plural
!
|-
|''I''
|see
|
|''We''
|''see''
|-
|''You''
|''see''
|
|''You (pural)''
|''see''
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|sees
|
|''They''
|''see''
|}


* finite verbs match the subject case
=== tense ===
* verbs can show past, present and future and various aspects of those
* verbs "inflect" or change according to tense
** or use an "auxiliary" or "helper" verb to indicte tense
*** ''I am, I was, I had been, I will be, etc.''


=== Parallel verb tense ===
=== maintaining parallel verb tense ===


* if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect
* if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect
** ex. HSPT test 1 no.  
** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
** <u>test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses, but it will not be measured on the high school or college entrance tests
** ex. ''Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade''
 
=== participle ===


=== lie v. lay: ===
* see also non-finite verb section
 
* participle is the form of a verb that creates the '''''-ing''''' or '''''-ed''''' form of the verb
** present continuous: ''I '''am speaking''' to the clerk.''
** simple past (or preterite): ''We '''discussed''' what we could do about it''
*** note that many verbs, such "to speak," have irregular participles: as in ''I spoke to the clerk''
** present participle adjective: ''The girl '''whispering''' to him was really loud.''
** gerund (present participle noun): '''''Whispering''' loudly isn't actually '''whispering'''''
** past participle adjective: ''The topic '''discussed''' was grammar''
* the participle is also used in the '''perfect tenses'''
 
=== perfect tenses ===
 
* "perfect" tense means that the action is has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* <u>note</u>:
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
 
==== present perfect ====
 
* = the action happened in the past and is still happening and/or is still part of the present (without reference to the future)
 
* uses "'''have'''" and "'''has'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** note that the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present</u>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "had"
!pronoun
!auxiliary verb
!past participle
!
!subject
!auxiliary verb
!past participle
|-
| colspan="7" |<u>Regular verb</u>: "wonder"
|-
|''I''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|
|''We''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|-
|''You''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|
|''You (plural)''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|-
|''He / She / It''
|'''''has'''''
|''wondered''
|
|''They''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|-
| colspan="7" |<u>Irregular verb</u>:"spend"
|-
|''I''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|
|
|
|-
|''You''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|''You (plural)''
|''have''
|''spent''
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|'''''has'''''
|''spent''
|
|''They''
|''have''
|''spent''
|}
 
* ''We have gone to France''
** = we went to France and it is still part of who we are
* ''He has talked about going to France''
** = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France
 
=== past perfect ===


* lie = to put oneself down
* uses "'''had'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** "had" is the same for all cases (
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
* note the singular


* lay = to put an object down
=== future perfect ===


* past tense
* uses "'''will have'''" and +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future
** ''By next Tuesday, I '''will have walked''' twelve miles''


* lie >> lay
== Verbs to know ==


* participle lain/lied/lying
=== lie v. lay: ===


* lay > laid
* lie = to put oneself down
** or be in the position of lying down


* participle: laid/laying
* lay = to put down
** especially regarding an object
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!present
!simple past
!present participle
!past participle
!perfect tense
|-
|lie
|lay or lied
|lying
|lied/ lain
|have/has lied (or lain)
|-
|lay
|laid
|laying
|laid
|have/has laid
|}


=== irregular past participles ===
=== irregular past participles ===
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