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'''Parts of Speech'''
'''Parts of Speech'''
* "part" = portion or role
* "part" = portion or role
* "speech" = verbal communication
* "speech" = verbal communication
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*[[Category:Grammar]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] Abbreviations used in this article:
*[[Category:Grammar]] [[Category:Parts of speech]] Abbreviations used in this article:
** IC = "independent clause"
** IC = "independent [[Vocabulary:Clause|clause]]"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** Phr = "[[Vocabulary:Phrase|phrase]]"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
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** CB = College Board
** CB = College Board
* All practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/practice/full-length-practice-tests College Board Official Practice Test Suite]]
* All practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/practice/full-length-practice-tests College Board Official Practice Test Suite]]
* See also [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]] for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech category, and rules governing their use.
* See also [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]] for list of commonly used words, their parts of speech category, and rules governing their use.  
'''<big>A note about modifiers</big>'''
 
* modifiers describe or otherwise add information to a sentence core
** sentence core = Subject + Predicate
*** at a minimum = subject + verb
*** the predicate is the verb + additional modifiers (adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, etc.)
* modifiers consist of five of the below 11 Parts of Speech
** adjective, adverb, article, determiner and preposition
* the other six parts of speech create the sentence core
** noun + verb = complete sentence
*** or pronoun + verb
** interjection = complete sentence
** conjunction = joins sentence parts
** particle = adds to a verb for additional meaning
<br>
== Adjective ==
== Adjective ==
=== modify nouns ===
=== modify nouns ===
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=== nouns and verbs as adjectives ===
=== nouns and verbs as adjectives ===
* when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
* when a noun or an adverb modify a noun, they are acting like adjectives
** note that they act like but are not adjectives
** see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
** see "Noun as modifier (attributive)" below
*** ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"  
*** ex.: "dog food" = "dog" describes the kind of food, even though "dog" is a noun"  
** see "past participle" under Verbs
** see "past participle" under Verbs
*** ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb
*** ex.: "cooked food" = "cooked" describes the kind of food, even though "cook" is a verb
=== adjectives following subject-verb ===  
=== adjectives following subject-verb (linking verb) ===  
* sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
* sometimes adjectives stand alone following a verb
** ex. "Josephus felt sad"
** ex. "Josephus felt sad"
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*** if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
*** if it were, it would an adverb, as in "Josephus felt badly for the hurt boy"
**** "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt  
**** "badly" = adverb that modifies the verb "felt  
** verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
* verbs that connect an adjective to a subject are called "linking verbs"
** linking verbs that may be followed by an adjective (and not an object/noun) include:
*** ''be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem''
*** ''be, feel, taste, smell, sound, sound, look, appear, seem''
* these sentences, therefore do not have objects (nouns)
* these sentences, therefore do not have objects (nouns)
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*** "extremely" describes the extent to which the coach was "angry" (an adjective)
*** "extremely" describes the extent to which the coach was "angry" (an adjective)
*** therefore, the adverb "extremely" acts upon the adjective "angry" as opposed to the verb "was"
*** therefore, the adverb "extremely" acts upon the adjective "angry" as opposed to the verb "was"
=== adverbs to describe how ===
=== to describe how ===
* adverbs can answer the "how" of an action (or verb):
* adverbs can answer the "how" of an action (or verb):
** how: "Soraya studied hard" or "Soraya studied quietly"
** how: "Soraya studied hard" or "Soraya studied quietly"
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** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/adjective_or_adverb/index.html Adjective or Adverb (OWL)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/grammar/adjective_or_adverb/index.html Adjective or Adverb (OWL)]


=== adverbs to describe when ===
=== to describe when ===
* are used to express the "when" of an action (verb)
* are used to express the "when" of an action (verb)
** ex. "Jocelyn arrived early"
** ex. "Jocelyn arrived early"
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**** see the entry for "Yesterday" on [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_word_parts_of_speech_%26_their_grammar_rules#Y-Z Word Parts of Speech & Their Rules Y-Z]]
**** see the entry for "Yesterday" on [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_word_parts_of_speech_%26_their_grammar_rules#Y-Z Word Parts of Speech & Their Rules Y-Z]]


===transitional adverb===
===transitional or conjunctive adverb===
* = connect actions and ideas  
* = connect actions and ideas  
* also called "transition words"
* or move a sentence or sentences from one idea to another  
* or move a sentence or sentences from one idea to another  
** thus is a conjunction, technically, "conjunctive adverb"
** thus is a conjunction, technically, "conjunctive adverb"
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* Sources:
* Sources:
** [https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/7876/is-yesterday-a-noun-an-adjective-or-an-adverb Is "yesterday" a noun, an adjective or an adverb? (stackexchange.com)]
**[https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/7876/is-yesterday-a-noun-an-adjective-or-an-adverb Is "yesterday" a noun, an adjective or an adverb? (stackexchange.com)]
** this source argumes that "yesterday, today" etc. are nouns: [https://parentingpatch.com/are-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow-nouns-or-adverbs/ Are ‘Yesterday,’ ‘Today’, and ‘Tomorrow’ Nouns or Adverbs? (parentingpatch.com]
** this source argues that "yesterday, today" etc. are nouns: [https://parentingpatch.com/are-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow-nouns-or-adverbs/ Are ‘Yesterday,’ ‘Today’, and ‘Tomorrow’ Nouns or Adverbs? (parentingpatch.com]
 
=== relative adverb ===
 
* an adverb that introduces a relative or adjective clause
** = a clause that modifies or describes another word or sentence part (usually the main clause)
* generally, relative adverbs indicate location, cause, or reason
* relative adverbs include, when , where, why
** ''Tell me when we get where we're going''
** ''That's when boys were boys''
**


== Article ==
== Article ==
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== Conjunction ==
== Conjunction ==
* connect or coordinate ideas, sentences, or thoughts
* connect or coordinate ideas, sentences, or thoughts
=== coordinator ===
* and, or
>> to do
===correlative conjunction===
* creates pairs of contrasting verbs and/or ideas
* include:
** ''both, and''
** ''either, or''
** ''neither, nor''
** ''not only, but ''
** ''rather, or''
=== coordinating conjunction ===
=== coordinating conjunction ===
===correlative conjunctions===
* = combine independent clauses (clauses that can stand as sentences on their own)
=== subordinating conjunctions===
* known as "FANBOYS"
** for '''''F'''or, '''A'''nd, '''B'''ut, '''O'''r, '''Y'''et & '''S'''o''
 
{| class="wikitable" margin-left:10px"
|+ The 7 coordinating conjunctions
|-
! Alphab. list !!colspan="2" | FANBOYS list   
|-
| and || F || for
|-
|but || A || and
|-
|for || N || nor
|-
|or || B || but
|-
|nor || O || or
|-
|so || Y || yet
|-
|yet||S|| so
|-
|}
 
=== subordinating conjunction ===
* = conjunctions that "subordinate" or turn an independent clause into a subordinate clause, i.e., a sentence that cannot stand on its own
* = create a need for additional information and sets up or adds to the information that follows in the dominant or main clause
** ex.: "The dog played with his toy every day until it wore out" can be phrased using a subordinating conjunction, as per:
** "Until it wore out, the dog played with his toy every day."
*** "Until it wore out" is not a complete sentence or thought
* subordinating conjunctions are sometimes referred to as SWABI for
** '''''S'''ince, '''W'''hen, '''A'''fter, '''B'''ecause & '''I'''f''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Subordinating conjunctions (SWABI)
|-
| after || although || as || as if || as long as
|-
| as much as || as soon as || as though || because || before
|-
| even  || even if || even though || if || if only
|-
| if then || if when|| inasmuch || just as || lest
|-
| now || now that || now when || once || provided
|-
| provided that || rather than || since || so that || supposing
|-
| than || that || though || till || unless
|-
| until || when || whenever || where || whereas
|-
| where if || wherever || whether || which || while
|-
| who || whoever || why
|-
|}
* note that when the subordinating conjunction follows the independent clause, it acts like a requisite relative conjunction
** ''I don't go to school whenever it snows''
* see
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar) Conjunction (grammar) (wiki)]]


=== conjunctive adverbs ===
=== conjunctive adverbs ===
* also called "linking adverbs"
* referred to as THAMOs
** >>
* create or indicate a relationship between two thoughts
** "complete thoughts" = independent clauses
** "thoughts" = predicate, i.e., as created by the verb and its complements (things that follow the verb)


=== other types of conjunctions ===
=== other types of conjunctions ===
* Sources:
* Sources:
** Correlative Conjunctions - Examples & Exercises (gingersoftware.com)
** [https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/conjunctions/correlative-conjunctions/ Correlative Conjunctions (gingersoftware.com)]
**[https://www.wordagents.com/types-of-conjunctions/ types of conjunctions (wordagents.com)]
**[https://www.wordagents.com/types-of-conjunctions/ types of conjunctions (wordagents.com)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/english_as_a_second_language/esl_students/combining_sentences/conjunctions_and_coordination.html Conjunctions and Coordination (owl.purdue)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/english_as_a_second_language/esl_students/combining_sentences/conjunctions_and_coordination.html Conjunctions and Coordination (owl.purdue)]
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* note: the word "objective" means "from a general point of view," thus, like the object of a sentence the object is not the actor   
* note: the word "objective" means "from a general point of view," thus, like the object of a sentence the object is not the actor   
** (i.e., from the "objective point of view")
** (i.e., from the "objective point of view")
* objects of verbs only follow action verbs (something has to happen)
* '''direct object'''
* '''direct object'''
** = the object that is the "direct" recipient of the action (verb)
** = the object that is the "direct" recipient of the action (verb)
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**** the verb gave requires the direct object "the donut"
**** the verb gave requires the direct object "the donut"
**** but it also has a recipient of the action, thus "to the boy"
**** but it also has a recipient of the action, thus "to the boy"
** indirect object answers <nowiki>''who? what? to whom? for what?''</nowiki>


=== lists of subjects & objects ===
=== lists of subjects & objects ===
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* compound prepositions:
* compound prepositions:
** ''ahead of, apart from, by means of, due to, from above (etc.) , in excess of, in front of, in regard to, prior to, similar to, with reference to, etc.''
** ''ahead of, apart from, by means of, due to, from above (etc.) , in excess of, in front of, in regard to, prior to, similar to, with reference to, etc.''
* categories of prepositions:
 
{| class="wikitable"
=== categories of prepositions ===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Some types or categories of prepositions
|+ Some types or categories of prepositions
|'''Prepositions of...'''
|'''Prepositions of...'''
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|-
|-
| direction or movement
| direction or movement
| ||''at, between, for, into, onto''
| ||''along, at, between, for, into, onto''
|
|
|-
|-
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|relationship or purpose
|relationship or purpose
|
|
|for, in relation to, like, regarding, with, without
|''for, in relation to, like, regarding, with, without''
|for learning, without laughing
|for learning, without laughing
|-
|accompaniment, together, in conjunction
|common or coordinated activity or purpose
|with,
|
|-
|-
|ownership
|ownership
|owned, created  
|owned, created  
|by, of,
|''by, of''
|
|
|-
|-
|focus of attention
|origin
|source
|''from, of''
|
|
|regarding, to,
|-
|focus of attention or topic
|
|''about, regarding, to''
|He apologized to her
|He apologized to her
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Preposition comparisons per category & use
|+ Preposition comparisons per category & use
| about|| place ||near, within || ''about there, moving about''
| about|| place ||near, within || ''about there, moving about''
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|}
|}


* See [[Preposition definitions and use]]<br />


 
=== List of prepositions ===
click EXPAND for list of prepositions:
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Quick list of (single word) prepositions
|+ Quick list of (single word) prepositions
|-
|-
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|-
|-
| like || next || near
| like || next || near
| of || off || on  
|-
|of
|off
|on
|-
|-
| over || past || since
| over || past || since
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| upon || with || within/out
| upon || with || within/out
|-
|-
|
|}
|}


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|-
|-
|}
|}
</div>
 
=== Select preposition definitions & use ===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+Select preposition definitions and examples
!Preposition
!Expresses
!Example
!Notes
|-
|about
|
|
|
|-
|at
|
|
|
|-
|by
|
|
|
|-
|for
|
|
|
|-
|from
|
|
|
|-
|of
|
|
|
|-
|on
|
|
|
|-
|to
|
|
|"to" can also be a "particle" or "infinitive marker"
 
* creates an infinitive: "to go"
* so not to be confused with a preposition
|-
|up
|heading above or upwards
|''He crept up the stairs''
|"up" can also be an adjective, adverb, noun or particle.
 
* * adjective, so when we say, "the sky is up" or "the system is up and running" it is not a preposition
 
* adverb: "She picked it up"
* noun: "What's up?"
* particle: "I looked it up," "The DJ turned up the music"
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''with'''
|accompanying, alongside, together
|''Stevie went with Joey to class''
 
''Coffeecake goes with coffee''
|
|-
|connected
|''The sofa & chair are with each other''
|
|-
|agreement
|''I agree with you (also "I am with you")''
|
|-
|method
|''I fixed my phone with duct tape''
|
|-
|note: see 1/13/23 Blair class
|
|
|
|}
 
* See
* See
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Preposition_and_postposition|Preposition and postposition (wiki)]]]
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Preposition_and_postposition|Preposition and postposition (wiki)]]]
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=== prepositional phrase ===
=== prepositional phrase ===
* = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
* = a phrase created by a preposition + its object
* = dependent clauses, so are separated from a main or dominant clause by a comma
** (a phrase = two or more words that do not contain a subject + verb)
* prepositional phrases that modify verbs are called ""adverbial phrases"  
* ex.: ''the book is '''on the table'''''
* see
** "on" = preposition
** [[https://writer.com/blog/prepositional-phrase/ Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]]
** "table" = object of the preposition, "on"
=== other exceptions ===
** "on the table" = prepositional phrase
 
=== prepositional phrases & verb types ===
* '''transitive verb''' = must be accompanied by an object
** the preposition will not be the direct object
*** ''I give a bone '''to the dog'''''
* '''intransitive verb''' = does not take an object
** the preposition will act as an adverb (modifier) of the intransitive verb:
*** He waits '''''for the bus'''''
**** the prepositional phrase doesn't match the subject; instead if modifies the verb "waits"
* '''linking verb''' = does not need an object
** linking verbs include ''is, become, seem, smell'', etc.
*** they do not take an adverb
**** i.e., "You seem happily" makes no sense
**** instead, "You seem happy"
***** "happy" = '''subject complement adjective'''
*** linking verbs "link" to a noun or adjective
**** "I feel happy" or "He is a doctor"
** as a modifier the '''prepositional phrase''' adds additional information to the '''subject complement noun'''
*** ''I feel happy '''about my test'''''
*** ''He is a doctor '''in Nebraska'''''
 
=== prepositional phrase as modifier ===
* prepositional phrases act like adjectives or adverbs to modify nouns or verbs
** therefore, they are not separated from the word they modify by punctuation
** ex. ''The player ran onto the field''
*** as opposed to ''The player, ran onto the field''
**** = incorrect comma that separates the verb "ran" from the prepositional phrase "onto the field"
 
==== modify a noun (as an adjective) ====
* ''The best books '''in the library''' are in the adventure section''
** note that there is no punctuation separating "books" from the modifying prepositional phrase, "in the library"
** also called an "adjective phrase" or "adjective prepositional phrase
 
==== modify a verb (as an adverb): ====
* ''He stepped onto the porch''
** "onto the porch" describes how "he stepped"
** so the prepositional phrase acts like an adverb
** sometimes called an "adverbial phrase"
 
==== as introductory phrase ====
 
* prepositional phrases are commonly used to introduce information about the clause that follows
** ex. ''On Tuesdays, I have night classes''
 
==== as noun phrase ====
* prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
* prepositional phrases can also act as nouns, usually as the subject of a sentence
** and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
** and usually in reference to a location or time that has an action (verb), such as:
*** "During the summer is the best time to play outside"
*** ''During the summer is the best time to play outside''
*** "After I exercise is when I feel best"
*** ''After I exercise is when I feel best''
* see:
* Sources:
** [https://writer.com/blog/prepositional-phrase/ Prepositional phrases: what they are and examples (writer.com)]
** [https://www.englishgrammar101.com/module-7/prepositions/lesson-6/prepositional-phrases-as-nouns Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)]
** [https://www.englishgrammar101.com/module-7/prepositions/lesson-6/prepositional-phrases-as-nouns Prepositional Phrases as Nouns(englishgrammar.com)]
** [https://www.brighthubeducation.com/english-homework-help/46995-the-nominal-functions-of-prepositions-and-prepositional-phrases/ How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)]
** [https://www.brighthubeducation.com/english-homework-help/46995-the-nominal-functions-of-prepositions-and-prepositional-phrases/ How to Use Prepositions as Subjects, Subject Complements, and Direct Objects (brighthub.com)]
** [https://blog.inkforall.com/types-of-prepositions Types of Prepositions (inkforall.com)]
** [https://blog.inkforall.com/types-of-prepositions Types of Prepositions (inkforall.com)]


=== Prepositions as adverbs & subordinating conjunctions ===
=== "overlapping" grammatical roles for prepositions ===
* prepositions and verb types:
* some words and grammar forms "overlap" or operate in or as multiple grammatical forms
** '''transitive verb''' = must be accompanied by an object
 
*** the preposition will not be the direct object
===== preposition as subordinating conjunction =====
**** ''I give a bone '''to the dog'''''
* = a "conjunctive preposition"
** '''intransitive verb''' = does not take an object
* which is also a "subordinating conjunction"
*** the preposition will act as an adverb (modifier) of the intransitive verb:
** compare: ''I got my license '''before last year'''''  
**** He waits '''''for the bus'''''
*** before= preposition that defines when "I went to school"
***** the prepositional phrase doesn't match the subject; instead if modifies the verb "waits"
** to: ''I got my license '''before last year ended'''''  
** '''linking verb''' = does not need an object
*** before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first
*** linking verbs include ''is, become, seem, smell'', etc.
** so we can view "before" as '''subordinating''' the clause, "last year ended,"
**** they do not take an adverb
*** it is a clause because it contains a subject (year) and verb ("ended)
***** i.e., "You seem happily" makes no sense
*** and the preposition "before" "subordinates
***** instead, "You seem happy"
*** however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a [[#subordinating conjunction]].
****** "happy" = '''subject complement adjective'''
** more examples:
**** linking verbs "link" to a noun or adjective
*** ''She paid the bill after dinner''vs:
***** "I feel happy" or "He is a doctor"
**** ''She paid the bill after she ate dinner''
*** as a modifier the prepositional phrase adds additional information to the '''subject complement noun'''
*** ''He played like a pro''vs.
**** ''I feel happy '''about my test'''''
**** ''He played like he was a pro''
**** ''He is a doctor '''in Nebraska'''''
 
* "overlapping" grammatical roles for prepositions
==== "intransitive preposition" ====
** some words and grammar forms "overlap" or operate in or as multiple grammatical forms
* = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
* "intransitive preposition"
* intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
** = prepositions may or may not define a "noun phrase" (which prepositions would normally accompany)
* i.e., they act as '''adverb modifiers''' or '''subject complements'''
** intransitive prepositions do not need a noun or noun phrase
 
** i.e., they act as '''adverb modifiers''' or '''subject complements'''
* most dictionaries qualify '''intransitive prepositions''' as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
* most dictionaries qualify intransitive prepositions as adverbs, such as "abroad," "now," "until"
** ex. of intransitive preposition: ''They went ahead'' or ''The dog is outside''
** ex. of intransitive preposition: "They went ahead" or "The dog is outside"
** with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions:  
** with a noun these would be more clearly prepositions:  
*** "They went ahead of the others" or "The dog is outside the fence"
*** ''They went ahead of the others'' or ''The dog is outside the fence''
* overlap of prepositions and subordinating conjunctions
* = a "conjunctive preposition"
** ex.: "I got my license before last year" (before= preposition that defines when "I went to school")
** vs.: "I got my license before last year ended" (before = combines "I got my license" and "last year ended" and defines which came first)
** we can view "before" as subordinating the phrase, "last year ended," which is technically a complete thought and sentence
** however, since "before" is defining the "when," which is a core function of a preposition, we can call it one, or call it a "conjunctive preposition" when also acting as a [[#subordinating conjunction]].
** ex.: "She paid the bill after dinner"
** vs.: "She paid the bill after she ate dinner"
** ex.: "He played like a pro"
** vs.: "He played like he was a pro"


=== Prepositions as "particle" (w/o object complement)===
=== Preposition as "particle" (w/o object complement)===
* ''particles'' are words that don't fit into the general categories of parts of speech
* ''particles'' are words that don't fit into the general categories of parts of speech
** the most common are prepositions that do not have an object
** the most common are prepositions that do not have an object
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** technically = "predicate"
** technically = "predicate"
*** predicate = "the portion of a sentence which makes a claim about the subject" [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar) Predicate (grammar) (wikipedia)]
*** predicate = "the portion of a sentence which makes a claim about the subject" [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar) Predicate (grammar) (wikipedia)]
=== finite v. non-finite verb ===
* finite verb = action verb
** action verb has a subject
*** ex. "Joey hates golf"
**** "hates" has the subject "Joey" and expresses an action
* non-finite verb = has no subject
** ex.  "playing golf is fun"
** non-finite verbs are also called "verbals"
* '''finite verb''' = directly expresses an action
* '''non-finite verb''' = does not directly express an action
** "Joey hates playing golf"
*** Joey = subject
*** hates = action verb
*** playing = a noun
**** = not a verb as it is not a direct action and has no subject
**** however, note that "golf" is the object of the non-finite verb "playing"
**** finite and non-finite verbs may have objects
***** object = recipient of the finite verb's action or the non-finite verb's expression of an action


=== verb "moods" ===  
=== verb "moods" ===  
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** the speaker will emphasize the adverb and object
** the speaker will emphasize the adverb and object
==== subjunctive mood ====
==== subjunctive mood ====
* expresses emotion, possibility or opinion
* verb that joins ideas across tenses
** possibility = something that has not happened"  
** to express emotion, possibility, condition or opinion
** ex. "Once we get this done..."
*** emotion = wanting something
**** ex. "''I wish I were less stressed over grammar''"
*** possibility = something that has not happened"
**** ex. "''Once we get this done...''"
*** condition = one thing required for another
**** "''If you study hard, you might pass''"
*** opinion = indicates the speaker's thought or attitude
**** "''He thinks that you should go''"
==== optative mood ====
==== optative mood ====
* expresses a wish or hope for something
* expresses a wish or hope for something
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**** other incorrect examples:
**** other incorrect examples:
***** "She told about her trip."  v. "She told us about her trip."
***** "She told about her trip."  v. "She told us about her trip."
***** "His dad bought
***** "His dad bought" = incomplete thought bc "bought" requires an object:
 
****** "His dad bought a boat"
=== infinitives ===
* infinitives use "to"
** ex. "I go to see the game"
* root forms act like infinitives but without the "to"
** infinitive and base forms are generally interchangeable:
** ex. "He helped her clean her desk" (root form)
** v. "He helped her to clean her desk" (infinitive form)
* note that "root" and "base" forms are used interchangeably
** except "base form" of a verb includes infinitive and simple present forms of the verb


=== present tense forms ===
=== present tense forms ===
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</div>
</div>


=== participles and gerunds ===
=== non-finite verb: participle, gerund & infinitive ===
* non-finite verbs
** = verbs that do not have a subject
** and thus do not act as an action or "finite" verb (that has a subject)
** = verbs that act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns
** non-finite verbs are also called "verbals"
* verb forms that act like an adjective, adverb or noun
* verb forms that act like an adjective, adverb or noun
* types:
* types:
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** gerund
** gerund
*** present participle verb form (using -ing) that acts as a noun
*** present participle verb form (using -ing) that acts as a noun
* participle verb forms that modify a noun are also called "attributive verbs"
** "attributive" in the sense of indicating a characteristic or description (an attribute)
** are the same thing as "present participle adjective" and "past participle adjective"
==== using gerunds and participles as nouns or adjectives ====
* the reason we use gerunds and participles is to express either the state of an action as a noun ("swimming") or, as an adjective, what an action does/did to a noun ("boiled water")
* gerunds and participles allow for simpler expression of those ideas than if they were expressed as subject-verbs
* participles may act as subordinating conjunction:
** such as "''Scrambling up the hill, he barely made it to the top''."
*** "Scrambling up the hill" is not a complete thought or sentence, so it is subordinate to the main clause, "he barely made it to the top.
** as opposed to "''He scrambled up the hill, and he barely made it to the top''"
** or
*** "''He scrambled up the hill and barely made it to the top''"
*** "''He scrambled up the hill, barely making it to the top''"
** each sentence form expresses a different emphasis
* '''''-ing''''' forms as adverbs may concisely express a "relative clause" (a sentence part that is related to it)
==== present participle ====  
==== present participle ====  
* uses the -ing form of a verb as an adjective or an adverb
* uses the -ing form of a verb as an adjective or an adverb
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** ''Smiling'', she went about her work" (modifies how she "went about her work")  
** ''Smiling'', she went about her work" (modifies how she "went about her work")  
** or "She went about her work ''smiling''"
** or "She went about her work ''smiling''"
==== participles and adverbs ====
* present participles may themselves be modified by an adverb
** ex.: ** or "She went about her work smiling enormously"
<< to confirm


==== past participle ====  
==== past participle ====  
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** "The glass was ''broken'' when I found it" ("was broken" describes the noun, glass)
** "The glass was ''broken'' when I found it" ("was broken" describes the noun, glass)
** "The ''cut'' flowers are pretty" ("cut'' modifies the noun, flowers)
** "The ''cut'' flowers are pretty" ("cut'' modifies the noun, flowers)
==== gerunds ====
**
** verbs that act as nouns
* participles as dangling modifiers
** use the -ing form of the verb
 
==== participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers" ====
* = adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they modify, ex:
** "Smiling happily, she won the choral competition"
*** = unclear if she won the competition because she was "smiling happily" or she was "smiling happily" when she won the tournament
 
* see [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/dangling-participle.html https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/d Dangling participle (english-grammar-revolution.com)]
 
==== participle as adverb ====
* present participles may themselves be modified by an adverb
** ex.: ** or "She went about her work smiling enormously"
==== gerund ====
*= verbs that act as nouns
* use the -ing form of the verb
* ex:
* ex:
** "to swim" + -ing = "swimming" = a noun for the act of swimming
** "to swim" + -ing = "swimming" = a noun for the act of swimming
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* since gerunds act as nouns, they are essential to make a complete sentence or thought (as a subject or object or other noun form)
* since gerunds act as nouns, they are essential to make a complete sentence or thought (as a subject or object or other noun form)
* to test whether verb is acting as a gerund or participle:
* to test whether verb is acting as a gerund or participle:
** is it modifying a
** remove it from the sentence and see if the sentence still makes sense:
** remove it from the sentence
*** "''Scrambling, he made it to the top of the hill''"\
==== using gerunds and participles ====
**** "''<s>Scrambling,</s> he made it to the top of the hill''"
* the reason we use gerunds and participle is to express either the state of an action ("swimming") or what an action does/did to a noun ("boiled water")
**** since the sentence is complete without "scrambling", it is a present participle adjective
* gerunds and participles allow for simpler expression of those ideas than if they were expressed as subject-verbs
*** "''Farming knowledge is helpful''"
* gerunds may act as subordinating conjunction
**** ''"<s>Farming</s> knowledge is helpful"''
** such as "Scrambling up the hill, he barely made it to the top."  
***** since "farming" is not necessary to the sentence, it is an adjective
*** "Scrambling up the hill" is not a complete thought or sentence, so it is subordinate to the main clause, "he barely made it to the top.
***''"Scrambling is not the best way to get up the hill"''
** as opposed to "He scrambled up the hill, and he barely made it to the top"
**** ''"<s>Scrambling</s> is not the best way to get up the hill"''
** or "He scrambled up the hill and barely made it to the top"
***** since the sentence is incomplete without "scrambling", it is a present participle adjective
*** each form expresses a different emphasis upon sentence parts
*** "''Knowing about farming is helpful''"
* -ing forms as adverbs may concisely express a "relative clause" (a sentence part that is related to
**** "''Knowing about farming is helpful''"
***** "''Knowing about <s>farming</s> is helpful''"
****** since the preposition "about" requires an object (noun), "farming" is a gerund
** see  from: https://classroom.synonym.com/can-word-verb-adjective-3119.html


==== participles as dangling modifiers ====
* sources:
* participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers"
** = adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they modify, ex:
*** "Smiling happily, she won the choral competition"
= unclear if she won the competition becuase she was "smiling happily" or she was "smiling happily" when she won the tournament
* see [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/dangling-participle.html https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/d Dangling participle (english-grammar-revolution.com)]
* See
** [[https://examples.yourdictionary.com/gerund-examples.html Gerund examples (yourdictionary.com)]]
** [[https://examples.yourdictionary.com/gerund-examples.html Gerund examples (yourdictionary.com)]]
** [https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/verbforms Grammar: Verb Forms: "-ing," Infinitives, and Past Participles (Walden Univ)]
** [https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/verbforms Grammar: Verb Forms: "-ing," Infinitives, and Past Participles (Walden Univ)]
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** [https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/participles.htm Grammar-Monster.com participles]
** [https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/participles.htm Grammar-Monster.com participles]


'''>> to do:'''
==== infinitive ====
from: https://classroom.synonym.com/can-word-verb-adjective-3119.html
* = a non-finite verbs
<blockquote><i>Sometimes, it can be difficult to tell the difference between a gerund and a participle. A good rule of thumb to follow is that a participle can be omitted and the sentence will still make sense.</i>
* infinitives use the particle "to"
** ex. "I go ''to see'' the game"
* "infinitive" comes from Latin for "indefinite" or "unrestricted"
** bc in Latin restrictive verbs must match noun case or plurality
*** i.e., they have a subject (and match to it)
** so the infinitive is "indefinite" or "unrestricted"
*** since it not attached to another noun (subject)
*** and thus it does not match case or plurality
* root forms or "bare infinitives" act like infinitives but without the "to"
** infinitive and base forms are generally interchangeable:
** ex. "He helped her clean her desk" (root form)
** v. "He helped her to clean her desk" (infinitive form)
** note that "root" and "base" forms are used interchangeably
*** except "base form" of a verb includes infinitive and simple present forms of the verb
** see:  
*** [https://www.thefreedictionary.com/bare+infinitive Bare Infinitive (fredictionary.com)]
*** [https://englishlessonsbrighton.co.uk/bare-infinitive/ What is a bare infinitive? (englishlessonsbrighton.com)]
 
* infinitives act as adjectives, adverbs or nouns
** as adjective
*** ''The place to go is the theatre''
**** "to go" is an adjective that describes "place"
** as adverb
*** I get to go there tomorrow
**** "to go" is an adverb that modifies the verb "get"
** as noun
*** ''I learned how to build it''
**** "to build" is the noun object of the verb "learned"


<i>The old lady showed me the way to the museum still works without the participle "smiling," but the same doesn't work for a gerund. If you omit “smoking” from the sentence, He was scolded for smoking, it won’t make sense.</i>
==== Resources ====


<i>The sentence, Visiting relatives can be boring, is ambiguous because visiting can be interpreted here as a gerund or as a participle. If you interpreted it as "going to relatives houses can be boring," you saw it as a gerund that appears in the subject position in the sentence. You can replace it with a simple noun to confirm it (e.g. Math can be boring). If you interpreted it as "relatives who come to your house can be boring," you saw it as a participle that serves as an adjective modifying the noun "relatives." In this case, you can omit it (Relatives can be boring) and the sentence will still make sense.</i>
* [[Non-finite verbs & the "verbiness" of participles gerunds infinitives worksheet]]
</blockquote>


=== subjunctive ===
=== subjunctive mood ===
* also called "subjunctive mood"
* expresses a hypothetical, possible or desirable scenario
* expresses a hypothetical or possible scenario
** emphasizes importance, emergency or possibility
** called "mood" because it often expresses an emotion or desire for something to happen or exist
** called "mood" because it often expresses an emotion, suggestions, desire, or demand
* subjunctive phrases usually pair verbs of opposing tenses, as in "if I had, I would"
* note that the hypothetical is often expressed using a modal verb instead of the subjunctive
** ex.: "If I had studied harder, I would have done better on the test."
** ''should, would, ought'', etc.
*** "had studied" = past perfect (an action that happened at one time)
* hypothetical subjunctive:
*** "would have studied" = conditional perfect tense (also "past tense modal")
** pairs verbs of opposing tenses by creating a hypothetical (not actual) scenario, usually starting with "if"
**** "would" = past tense of "will" thereby represents an imaginary action from the past
** ex.: "''If I had studied harder, I would have done better on the test''."
*** "''if''" creates the hypothetical
*** "''had studied''" = past perfect (an action that happened at one time)
*** "''would have studied''" = conditional perfect tense (also "past tense modal")
**** "''would''" = past tense of "will" thereby represents an imaginary action from the past
* suggestion, demand or command subjunctive:
** ex. "''I recommend that you talk to your teacher''"
*** "''I recommend''" = a command or suggestion
*** "''that you talk''" = present tense subjunctive
* subjunctive and the "'''that clause'''"
** "that" introduces the possibility
*** "''It is important that..."''
*** "''They requested that...''"
*** "''She insisted that...''"
** the relative pronoun "that" can be omitted in the subjunctive mood:
*** "''I recommend you talk to your teacher''"
*** = same as "''I recommend that you talk to your teacher''"
* subjunctive and "'''not'''"
** "''I recommend that you not talk to your teacher''"
* subjunctive and "whether", "need be", "may be", "come what may"
** all express possibility
** ex.
*** "''Whether I am well, I will take the test''"
*** "''I will get it done come what may''"
*** ''"It need not be that way"''
**
* see
* see
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:English_subjunctive|English subjunctive(wiki)]]]
** [<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:English_subjunctive|English subjunctive(wiki)]]]
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=== auxiliary verb ===
=== auxiliary verb ===
* also called "helping verb"
* a verb that indicates the tense of another verb, as in
** ''I '''am''' helping out''
** '''We ''had''' cleaned up beforehand''
>> to complete entry


=== Linking verb ===
=== linking verb ===


* "links" the subject to a complement and not to an object of the action
* "links" the subject to a complement and not to an object of the action
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** it would also seem that the tense of the linking verb matters:
** it would also seem that the tense of the linking verb matters:
*** "My bike was/ will be stolen" indicates an action whereas "My bike is stolen" indicates a state:
*** "My bike was/ will be stolen" indicates an action whereas "My bike is stolen" indicates a state:
"My bike is painted red" = past participle adjective w/ linking verb "is": [[File:Past-participle-as-subject-complement-to-linking-verb.jpg|left|400px]]
**** "My bike is painted red" = past participle adjective w/ linking verb "is"
"My bike is painted red" = the result of the act of being painted: [[File:Past-participle-as-transitive-verb-w-auxiliary-verb.jpg|left|400px]]
**** "My bike is painted red" = the result of the act of being painted
<gallery widths="400px" heights="300px">
File:Past-participle-as-subject-complement-to-linking-verb.jpg
File:Past-participle-as-transitive-verb-w-auxiliary-verb.jpg
</gallery>
 
* see: https://blogs.stockton.edu/grammar/linking-verbs-and-participles/
* see: https://blogs.stockton.edu/grammar/linking-verbs-and-participles/


=== modal verb ===
=== modal verb ===
* asdf
* a form of auxiliary verb
* asdf
* indicates possibility, necessity, desirability, possibility, requirement:
** '''can, could, had better, may, might, must, need, ought, shall, should, would'''
* modal verbs add that conditionality to a finite (action) verb
** ''I can do it, we should go there, you must go there'', etc., vs.
** ''I do it,'' ''we go there, you go there'', etc
* the modal verb is necessary for the semantic purpose (its meaning) of the sentence
** whereas an auxiliary ("helping") verb is not
*** auxiliary verbs "mark" tense or passive voice
**** ''The teacher '''had''' taught'' (past perfect tense)
***** ''The subject '''was''' taught by the teacher'' (passive voice)
*** however, the modal verb must be accompanied by a finite (action) verb
**** i.e., modals cannot be the action of the sentence
>>  Modal Verbs: Definition & Usage Examples | Grammarly Blog
>>  Modal Verbs: Definition & Usage Examples | Grammarly Blog
=== attribution or reporting or signaling verb ===
* reports or indicates from a source or a point of view
* from:
** ''attribution'': from "to attribute" for "to give credit to"
** ''reporting'' or ''signaling'': indicating what someone believes or says
** these verbs typically express:
*** a claim (argue, assert, believe, claim, emphasize, note, observe, remind, report)
*** agreement (accept, acknowledge, agree, concur, confirm, coroborate, maintain, recognize, support, verify)
*** disagreement (challenge, complain, complicate, contend, contradict, deny, qualify, question, reject, refute)
*** emphasis (emphasize, highlight, stress, underscore)
*** to examine (analyze, assess, compare, contrast, evaluate, examine, investigate, scrutinize, study)
*** to recommend (advise, advocate, call for, demand, encourage, exhort, implore, insist, recommend, suggest, urge, warn)
*** a proposition (hypothesize, intimate, suggest, speculate)
*** a belief (believe, express, feel, imagine, hope, profess, uphold)
*** a conclusion (conclude, discern, discover, find, summarizes
*** an explanation (articulate, clarify, define, explain, identify, illustrate)
* verbs of attribution are transitive, thus require a direct object
** thus take an object
*** can be a noun clause (as direct object
**** ''The teacher said '''grammar is important'''''
**** or prepositional phrase (as adverb)
***** ''The teacher believes '''in grammar'''''
** if the verb has a simple direct object noun it is not acting as a reporting verb, just as an action verb:
*** ''The teacher emphasizes grammar''
* see https://uwaterloo.ca/writing-and-communication-centre/reporting-verbs
== Other word forms ==
=== Discourse marker ===
* a form of a "filler" word or phrase that functions to guide "discourse" or conversational flow
* examples include:
**''and, basically, because, but, exactly, I mean, I'm not sure, in the end, like, look, now, oh well, or, so, uhh, wow, you know''
* discourse markers don't have a particular semantic function
* instead, they help to advance or direct a conversation through
** affirm or stress a statement or thought
*** ''exactly, wow''
** cognitive marker (demonstrating the processing of a thought)
*** ''I mean, oh, uh''
** connect or contrast an idea or topic
*** ''and, but''
** express causality or sequence
*** ''because, so, then, well''
** introduce or conclude a topic
*** ''now, oh well, then''
** reformulate or rephrase a discussion
*** ''basically, I mean''
** summarize
*** ''in the end, so''
* see : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_marker
=== Expletive ===
* used as an intensifier, generally for emotional impact or expression
* also known as  "bad language", "curse words" or "profanity"
* expetitive origin
** from Latin ''explere'' for "to fill"<br />
=== Filler word ===
*''like, uh''
* >> to do
=== Placeholder ===
* used to reference something or someone without specifying it directly:
* ''thingamagig, whatchamacallit, whatshisface''


== Parts of Speech resources ==
== Parts of Speech resources ==
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