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Simple grammar cheat sheet (view source)

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Grammar
== Grammar ==


Syntax
* the rules of language
** especially for written language
 
=== Punctuation ===
 
* printed marks that indicate breaks, pauses, or other meanings in a sentence
* includes, period, comma, colon, semicolon, apostrophe, parentheses, etc.
 
=== Syntax ===
 
* word order and arrangements
* and rules for how word order and arrangements create meaning
 
=== Semantics ===
 
* meaning as created by grammatical rules and syntactical (syntax) arrangments of sentences


== Parts of Speech ==
== Parts of Speech ==
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* such as adjective, adverb, noun, verb, etc.
* such as adjective, adverb, noun, verb, etc.
* many words can operate across or as different parts of speech
* many words can operate across or as different parts of speech
** ex., an "attributive noun" acts as an adjective that modifies another noun ("'''''dog''''' food")  
** ex.,  
*** an "attributive noun" acts as an adjective that modifies another noun ("'''''dog''''' food")
*** a non-finite verb can act as an adjective, adverb or noun
**** gerund (-ing), participle adjective (-ing/ -ed) or infinitive ("to" form) of a verb
 
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+PARTS OF SPEECH
!Part of Speech
!Definition
!Category
!Other
|-
|Adjective
|modifies nouns
|modifier
|
|-
|Adverb
|modifies verbs and adjectives
|modifier
|
|-
|Article
|identifies a known or unknown noun
("the" or "a"/"an")
|modifier
|
|-
|Conjunction
|joins or contrasts words and sentence parts
|grammatical
|
|-
|Determiner
|identifies specificity (these), quantity (five), amount (some), possession (our), sufficiency (enough) or a noun
|modifier
|
|-
|Interjection
|an exclamation or abrupt remark (What?, Yes!)
|grammatical
|
|-
|Noun
|a person, place or thing
|grammatical
|
|-
|Preposition
|identifies a relationship between a noun or a verb and another noun ("'''''on''''' the table", "to the store")
|modifier
|
|-
|Pronoun
|references a noun or a person (I, you, he/she/it, we, they, etc.)
|grammatical
|
|-
|Verb
|indicates action or existence
|grammatical
|
|}


== Modifier ==
== Modifier ==
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** adjective, adverb, article, determiner, preposition
** adjective, adverb, article, determiner, preposition
* phrases and clauses can also act as modifiers
* phrases and clauses can also act as modifiers
** "relative" or "adjective" clause modifies another word or sentence part
*** ex. "The pizza was so cheezie, '''''which made a mess'''''"
** adverbial, participial, prepositional and other phrases modify another word or sentence part
*** '''''"Given extra time''''', he was able to finish"
*** "I take biology '''''on Tuesdays"'''''


== Sentence Parts ==
== Sentence Parts ==
=== Sentence ===
* a grammatically complete thought, as in:
** contains a subject & verb/predicate
** must be a complete thought


=== Subject ===
=== Subject ===
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* expresses what happens to the subject
* expresses what happens to the subject
* i.e., = the verb + the result or outcome of an action
* i.e.,
** it follows the subject
** = the verb + the result or outcome of an action
* predicates always contain a verb


=== Object ===
=== Object ===


* the recipient of the action
* the result, target, or recipient of an action (verb)
** i.e.,
* objects are nouns or infinitives
* direct object
* direct object
** the "direct" or primary result of an action (verb)
** ex.  "She gave a '''''book''''' to him"
* indirect object
* indirect object
** the "indirect" or secondary
** ex. "She gave '''''him''''' a book"
=== Subject Complement ===


=== Sentence ===
* a noun, pronoun or adjective that "complements" a linking verb
* a grammatically complete thought
** i.e., if the verb does not have a direct object it has a "complement"
** contains a subject & verb/predicate
*** ex.  "He is a guitarist" 
**** linking verbs such as "to be" have complements instead of objects
* linking verbs do not have objects
** linking verbs include, ''act, be, seem, smell,'' etc.


=== Clause ===
=== Clause ===
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* has a subject & verb
* has a subject & verb


Independent clause
==== Independent clause ====
 
* a clause that can be a sentence by itself
** i.e. has a subject & verb and completes a thought
** "in" = not + dependent, thus "not dependent" (independent)
 
==== Dependent clause ====
 
* a clause that cannot be a sentence by itself
** i.e., has a subject + verb but does not complete a thought
* there are several types of dependent clauses:
 
===== Subordinate clause =====
 
* a dependent clause that starts with a Subordinating Conjunction
** such ''as, after, because, since, while'', etc
** ex. "Since it is raining" = has subject + verb but is not a complete thought
 
===== Relative or Adjective clause =====
 
* a dependent clause that describes another word, idea or sentence part
* relative clauses are used to add information
* relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun
** such as ''that, which, who, whose''
** ex. "I ate the apple '''''that was ripe'''''"


=== Phrase ===
=== Phrase ===


* two or more words that  
* two or more words that:
** do not contain a subject & verb
** do not contain a subject & verb
** form a distinct grammatical unit ("constituent")
** form a distinct grammatical unit ("constituent")


=== Joining sentence parts ===
=== Joining sentence parts ===
* conjunctions combine words, phrases, clauses and ideas
* a simple conjunction combines words
** apples '''''or''''' oranges
* a coordinating conjunction combines Independent Clauses (IC)
** "I ate an apple, and I ate an orange."
* other conjunctions
** subordinating conjunction
*** combines two clauses while "subordinating" one of the clauses (turns it into a dependent or subordinate clause)
**** I only ate one apple '''''because''''' I wasn't very hungry."
** adverbial conjunctions
*** compares or contrasts two verbs
**** '''''"However''''' much I like tennis, I really am not good at it."


== Punctuation ==
== Punctuation ==
* note:
** IC = Independent Clause
** DC = Dependent Clause
** PHr = Phrase
Punctuation
=== periods . ===
* '''periods''' separate sentences
* periods do '''ONE''' thing =
# separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
click EXPAND to see what PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>periods</u>:
* periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
* notes:
** if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, it cannot end there with a period
*** i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense
** note that "interjection" verbs do not have an explicit SUBJECT, but can still create a complete sentence
*** ex. "Go to the store." or "Stop!"
** same for exclamations
*** ex. "Ouch." (can stand as a sentence, although exclamations usually are punctuated by exclamation points (!)
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
=== semicolons ; ===
* combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them
** as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts
* semicolons do '''ONE''' thing:
# combine ICs
* note that semicolons can -- but rarely:
** separate a list of IC's: 
*** as in "IC; IC; IC; IC."
** separate a list of common examples, usually following a colon
*** as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing."
**** ex. "''On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey."''
***
click EXPAND to see what SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>semicolons</u>:
# combine two ICs
#* "School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC
* can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)
** "School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC
* notes:
** semicolons must have IC (could be complete sentences & thoughts) on both sides of the semicolon
*** i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
=== commas , ===
* create pauses
* commas do '''FIVE''' things:
click EXPAND to see what COMMAS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>commas</u>:
# combine IC, DC, or DC, IC
#* or IC, Phr  or Phr, IC
#** ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC
#** ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC
#*** (prepositional phrase, independent clause)
# combine ICs
#* ''but only with a coordinating conjunction'' (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC
#* ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC"
#** "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC
#** "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC
# separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects)
#* ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O
# act parenthetically
#* ", .... ," (like these parentheses)
#** The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V
# introduce a direct quotation
#* ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!"
* notes:
** commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically
** commas CANNOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
** 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another
*** "Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy"
**** = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
=== colons : ===
* distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC
*  colons = do '''ONE''' thing:
# extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC
#* i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s
#** ''The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"  = IC: list
* note that colons <U>DO NOT</u>:
** follow a dependent clause
** interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) elements in a sentence
*** ex., "''I went to the store''': because''' I needed some supplies''"
**** the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..."
*** or "''She knew''': that''' it was the right thing to do''"
**** the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates
** have multiple colons in a sentence
click EXPAND to see what COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>colons</u>:
# extend or provide examples following an IC
* what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)
** except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect)
** or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)
** colons are usually followed by a list or an example
** a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:
*** ''The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!"'' = IC: IC
* note:
** a colon must be preceded by an IC
** it can be followed by anything except for another colon
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>


=== Colon ===
=== dashes -- ===
* separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon
* dashes do '''TWO''' things:
# act like a colon
# act like parentheses (...) = -...-
click EXPAND to see what DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>dashes</u>:
# act like a colon
#* ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list
# act like parentheses (...) = -...-
#* The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive"
* notes:
** if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)
** if the dash is operating as a colon, it must be preceded by an IC
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