4,620
edits
(Created page with " == Parts of Speech == == Sentence Parts == === Sentence === * a grammatically complete thought ** contains a subject & verb/predicate === Predicate === === Clause === * part of a sentence * has a subject & verb Independent clause === Phrase === * two or more words that ** do not contain a subject & verb ** form a distinct grammatical unit ("constituent") === Joining sentence parts === == Punctuation == === Colon ===") |
|||
(8 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
== Grammar == | |||
* the rules of language | |||
** especially for written language | |||
=== Punctuation === | |||
* printed marks that indicate breaks, pauses, or other meanings in a sentence | |||
* includes, period, comma, colon, semicolon, apostrophe, parentheses, etc. | |||
=== Syntax === | |||
* word order and arrangements | |||
* and rules for how word order and arrangements create meaning | |||
=== Semantics === | |||
* meaning as created by grammatical rules and syntactical (syntax) arrangments of sentences | |||
== Parts of Speech == | == Parts of Speech == | ||
* categories for the role of a word in a sentence | |||
* such as adjective, adverb, noun, verb, etc. | |||
* many words can operate across or as different parts of speech | |||
** ex., | |||
*** an "attributive noun" acts as an adjective that modifies another noun ("'''''dog''''' food") | |||
*** a non-finite verb can act as an adjective, adverb or noun | |||
**** gerund (-ing), participle adjective (-ing/ -ed) or infinitive ("to" form) of a verb | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" | |||
|+PARTS OF SPEECH | |||
!Part of Speech | |||
!Definition | |||
!Category | |||
!Other | |||
|- | |||
|Adjective | |||
|modifies nouns | |||
|modifier | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Adverb | |||
|modifies verbs and adjectives | |||
|modifier | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Article | |||
|identifies a known or unknown noun | |||
("the" or "a"/"an") | |||
|modifier | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Conjunction | |||
|joins or contrasts words and sentence parts | |||
|grammatical | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Determiner | |||
|identifies specificity (these), quantity (five), amount (some), possession (our), sufficiency (enough) or a noun | |||
|modifier | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Interjection | |||
|an exclamation or abrupt remark (What?, Yes!) | |||
|grammatical | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Noun | |||
|a person, place or thing | |||
|grammatical | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Preposition | |||
|identifies a relationship between a noun or a verb and another noun ("'''''on''''' the table", "to the store") | |||
|modifier | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Pronoun | |||
|references a noun or a person (I, you, he/she/it, we, they, etc.) | |||
|grammatical | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|Verb | |||
|indicates action or existence | |||
|grammatical | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
== Modifier == | |||
* a word or set of words that "modify" or change, add to, qualify, or describe another word or another part of a sentence | |||
* some parts of speech are modifiers: | |||
** adjective, adverb, article, determiner, preposition | |||
* phrases and clauses can also act as modifiers | |||
** "relative" or "adjective" clause modifies another word or sentence part | |||
*** ex. "The pizza was so cheezie, '''''which made a mess'''''" | |||
** adverbial, participial, prepositional and other phrases modify another word or sentence part | |||
*** '''''"Given extra time''''', he was able to finish" | |||
*** "I take biology '''''on Tuesdays"''''' | |||
== Sentence Parts == | == Sentence Parts == | ||
=== Sentence === | === Sentence === | ||
* a grammatically complete thought, as in: | |||
** contains a subject & verb/predicate | |||
** must be a complete thought | |||
=== Subject === | |||
* a noun | |||
* the actor | |||
* i.e., the person place or thing that does the action | |||
* in grammar, "subject" is in the sense of "to subject" or "to force into submission" | |||
** as in the "doer" of the sentence, the actor that causes the action | |||
* also related to the word "'''subjective,'''" which means "from the perspective of" | |||
=== Verb === | |||
* | * word that expresses an action ("make") or existence ("be") | ||
** | * '''infinitive''' = "to" + the verb , as in "to make" | ||
** infinitives express the action in general but not the action itself | |||
** infinitives can operate as nouns or adjectives | |||
*** as in "I want '''''to go'''''" ("to go" = the object of the verb "want") | |||
=== Predicate === | === Predicate === | ||
* expresses what happens to the subject | |||
* i.e., | |||
** it follows the subject | |||
** = the verb + the result or outcome of an action | |||
* predicates always contain a verb | |||
=== Object === | |||
* the result, target, or recipient of an action (verb) | |||
* objects are nouns or infinitives | |||
* direct object | |||
** the "direct" or primary result of an action (verb) | |||
** ex. "She gave a '''''book''''' to him" | |||
* indirect object | |||
** the "indirect" or secondary | |||
** ex. "She gave '''''him''''' a book" | |||
=== Subject Complement === | |||
* a noun, pronoun or adjective that "complements" a linking verb | |||
** i.e., if the verb does not have a direct object it has a "complement" | |||
*** ex. "He is a guitarist" | |||
**** linking verbs such as "to be" have complements instead of objects | |||
* linking verbs do not have objects | |||
** linking verbs include, ''act, be, seem, smell,'' etc. | |||
=== Clause === | === Clause === | ||
Line 16: | Line 156: | ||
* has a subject & verb | * has a subject & verb | ||
Independent clause | ==== Independent clause ==== | ||
* a clause that can be a sentence by itself | |||
** i.e. has a subject & verb and completes a thought | |||
** "in" = not + dependent, thus "not dependent" (independent) | |||
==== Dependent clause ==== | |||
* a clause that cannot be a sentence by itself | |||
** i.e., has a subject + verb but does not complete a thought | |||
* there are several types of dependent clauses: | |||
===== Subordinate clause ===== | |||
* a dependent clause that starts with a Subordinating Conjunction | |||
** such ''as, after, because, since, while'', etc | |||
** ex. "Since it is raining" = has subject + verb but is not a complete thought | |||
===== Relative or Adjective clause ===== | |||
* a dependent clause that describes another word, idea or sentence part | |||
* relative clauses are used to add information | |||
* relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun | |||
** such as ''that, which, who, whose'' | |||
** ex. "I ate the apple '''''that was ripe'''''" | |||
=== Phrase === | === Phrase === | ||
* two or more words that | * two or more words that: | ||
** do not contain a subject & verb | ** do not contain a subject & verb | ||
** form a distinct grammatical unit ("constituent") | ** form a distinct grammatical unit ("constituent") | ||
=== Joining sentence parts === | === Joining sentence parts === | ||
* conjunctions combine words, phrases, clauses and ideas | |||
* a simple conjunction combines words | |||
** apples '''''or''''' oranges | |||
* a coordinating conjunction combines Independent Clauses (IC) | |||
** "I ate an apple, and I ate an orange." | |||
* other conjunctions | |||
** subordinating conjunction | |||
*** combines two clauses while "subordinating" one of the clauses (turns it into a dependent or subordinate clause) | |||
**** I only ate one apple '''''because''''' I wasn't very hungry." | |||
** adverbial conjunctions | |||
*** compares or contrasts two verbs | |||
**** '''''"However''''' much I like tennis, I really am not good at it." | |||
== Punctuation == | == Punctuation == | ||
* note: | |||
** IC = Independent Clause | |||
** DC = Dependent Clause | |||
** PHr = Phrase | |||
Punctuation | |||
=== periods . === | |||
* '''periods''' separate sentences | |||
* periods do '''ONE''' thing = | |||
# separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences | |||
click EXPAND to see what PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule: | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
<u>periods</u>: | |||
* periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences | |||
* notes: | |||
** if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, it cannot end there with a period | |||
*** i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense | |||
** note that "interjection" verbs do not have an explicit SUBJECT, but can still create a complete sentence | |||
*** ex. "Go to the store." or "Stop!" | |||
** same for exclamations | |||
*** ex. "Ouch." (can stand as a sentence, although exclamations usually are punctuated by exclamation points (!) | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
</div> | |||
=== semicolons ; === | |||
* combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them | |||
** as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts | |||
* semicolons do '''ONE''' thing: | |||
# combine ICs | |||
* note that semicolons can -- but rarely: | |||
** separate a list of IC's: | |||
*** as in "IC; IC; IC; IC." | |||
** separate a list of common examples, usually following a colon | |||
*** as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing." | |||
**** ex. "''On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey."'' | |||
*** | |||
click EXPAND to see what SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s: | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
<u>semicolons</u>: | |||
# combine two ICs | |||
#* "School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC | |||
* can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.) | |||
** "School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC | |||
* notes: | |||
** semicolons must have IC (could be complete sentences & thoughts) on both sides of the semicolon | |||
*** i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
</div> | |||
=== commas , === | |||
* create pauses | |||
* commas do '''FIVE''' things: | |||
click EXPAND to see what COMMAS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s: | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
<u>commas</u>: | |||
# combine IC, DC, or DC, IC | |||
#* or IC, Phr or Phr, IC | |||
#** ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC | |||
#** ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC | |||
#*** (prepositional phrase, independent clause) | |||
# combine ICs | |||
#* ''but only with a coordinating conjunction'' (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC | |||
#* ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC" | |||
#** "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC | |||
#** "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC | |||
# separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects) | |||
#* ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O | |||
# act parenthetically | |||
#* ", .... ," (like these parentheses) | |||
#** The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V | |||
# introduce a direct quotation | |||
#* ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!" | |||
* notes: | |||
** commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically | |||
** commas CANNOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) | |||
** 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another | |||
*** "Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy" | |||
**** = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
</div> | |||
=== colons : === | |||
* distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC | |||
* colons = do '''ONE''' thing: | |||
# extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC | |||
#* i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s | |||
#** ''The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession" = IC: list | |||
* note that colons <U>DO NOT</u>: | |||
** follow a dependent clause | |||
** interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) elements in a sentence | |||
*** ex., "''I went to the store''': because''' I needed some supplies''" | |||
**** the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..." | |||
*** or "''She knew''': that''' it was the right thing to do''" | |||
**** the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates | |||
** have multiple colons in a sentence | |||
click EXPAND to see what COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s: | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
<u>colons</u>: | |||
# extend or provide examples following an IC | |||
* what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase) | |||
** except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect) | |||
** or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect) | |||
** colons are usually followed by a list or an example | |||
** a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as: | |||
*** ''The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!"'' = IC: IC | |||
* note: | |||
** a colon must be preceded by an IC | |||
** it can be followed by anything except for another colon | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
</div> | |||
=== | === dashes -- === | ||
* separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon | |||
* dashes do '''TWO''' things: | |||
# act like a colon | |||
# act like parentheses (...) = -...- | |||
click EXPAND to see what DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s: | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> | |||
---------------------------------------------------------- | |||
<u>dashes</u>: | |||
# act like a colon | |||
#* ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list | |||
# act like parentheses (...) = -...- | |||
#* The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive" | |||
* notes: | |||
** if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...) | |||
** if the dash is operating as a colon, it must be preceded by an IC |