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'''SAT Writing Section Techniques, Strategies & Approaches'''
'''SAT Writing Section Techniques, Strategies & Approaches'''


[[Category:SAT verbal]]
{{New SAT test disclaimer}}
[[Category:SAT exam prep]]
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:SAT Writing]]
 
* see also:
** [[Transition_words_translations|Writing Section transition words translations]]
** [[SAT Reading section techniques, strategies & approaches]]
** [[SAT Reading section historical timeline & themes]]
** [[Grammar]]
** [[Parts of speech]]
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]]


See also:
* [[Transition_words_translations|Writing Section transition words translations]]
* [[SAT Reading section techniques, strategies & approaches]]
* [[SAT Reading section historical timeline & themes]]
* [[Grammar]]
* [[Parts of speech]]
* [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]]


* Note on abbreviations
* Note on abbreviations
Line 106: Line 102:


== Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules ==
== Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules ==
* see further below for more on all these concepts and rules in the quick start guides
* for quick review of grammar and punctuation basics go to [[SAT Reading and Writing quick start grammar and punctuation guide]]
* for more in-depth review of concepts and rules, see below.


=== Verbs quick start guide ===
== BIG IDEAS ==
* this S4Swiki entry is designed to help identify grammar, punctuation, usage and logic rules and conventions
* in general:
** any text that is not underlined is to be assumed as correct
*** therefore you can test grammatical rules based on it
* use the test to answer itself
* read punctuation "out loud" to yourself" so as not to miss it


* '''verb'''
=== Writing section is rules-based ===
** indicates an action, existence or occurrence
* answers and eliminations follow set grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions
*** ''I do, I am, I went''
* therefore, identify the rules as you practice & apply them in your elimination strategies
** is the basis of a predicate
* see [[SAT Writing section grammar rules chart]] for quick start review of Writing section Rules & eliminations
*** predicate = the action and its result/s, modifier/s or object/s
* for the SAT, identify if a verb is '''''finite''''' or '''''non-finite'''''


==== Finite verb ====
=== Passage titles ===
* read passage titles!
** titles express author intent
** titles are frequently a thesis statements (no other details are provided)
** titles generally answer the last question on each passage (not always)
*** concluding sentences must align w/ the title


* has a subject
=== Difficulty level ===
* finite verbs form the core of a sentence or clause
* difficulty level is based on the passage and not the questions
** there can be difficult questions on easy passages, but the bulk of "hard" questions will coincide with difficult passages


==== Non-finite verb ====
=== Elimination ===  
* eliminate the "low-hanging fruit" first
** i.e., the easy or most obvious eliminations
* always eliminate for errors, don't select for correctness


* does not have a subject
=== Grammar, logic & punctuation ===
* non-finite verbs act as a noun (gerund), adjective (past or present participle) or infinitive ("to" form of a verb)
* build grammar literacy as you practice
* for the SAT, the most important non-finite verb is the present participle adjective
* speak punctuation as you read so as not to miss
** = the '''-ing''' form of a non-finite verb acting as an adjective
* every sentence contains a SUBJECT and a VERB (and usually an OBJECT)
*** note that non-finite verbs acting as nouns, called gerunds, are also in the '''-ing''' form of the verb
** identify the CORE of the sentence (the "main clause")
** present participles are used to add information to an independent clause
*** then identify the sentence core then you will see how the rest of the sentence is built out from there
*** ''ex. Driving carefully, she made it home safely in the storm''
* editing or sentence placement questions follow simple logic, either:
**** = "She drove carefully in the storm. She made it home safely."
** chronology
**** we can combine those two sentences into a more compact sentence by using the non-finite verb "driving"
*** what has to happen first or after
*** note that participle phrases are attached to an independent clause by a comma and not a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
** presentation of ideas
*** what information belongs to a logical argument
*** i.e., "if this then that" or statements necessary for an argument


=== Punctuation quick start guide ===
=== Identify sentence core ===
Reminder about abbreviations =
* every sentence starts with a subject and a verb (SV) and usually an object (thus, "SVO")
* identify the core of a sentence
** then see how the sentence builds out from there
** ex:
*** ''Jamal plays chess''. (subject + verb)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess''. (adds prepositional phrase for when)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends''. (adds prepositional phrases for where and with whom)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends since he can't make it there on Thursdays''. (adds [[subordinating conjunction]] since which creates the subordinate (or dependent) clause to express why)
* finding the core SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT helps to identify other sentences parts and to avoid confusing or mismatching subject-verb agreement and other mistakes


* IC = independent clause
=== Parallelism ===  
* DC = dependent clause
* the SAT Writing test frequently measures "parallelism"
* Phr = phrase
** or maintaining "parallel" verb tense, subject-verb agreement, prepositions, and comparatives
* S= subject (noun)
==== parallel verb tense====  
* V = verb
** if one verb is in the past, then (usually) the other verbs in the sentence must also maintain "parallel" tense, i.e. also be in the past tense
* O = object (noun)
* ex.
 
** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.
==== periods . ====  
*** each verb, "went," "bought," and "returned" and in the same (past) tense
* '''periods''' separate sentences
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 9]:
* periods do '''ONE''' thing =
# separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
click EXPAND to see what PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>periods</u>:
* periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
* elimination:
** if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, the period is wrong
*** i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense
 
* if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
 
* note that "interjection" (a quick remark or interruption) or "imperative" (a command) VERBS contain an implied SUBJECT
* so they can create a complete sentence or independent clause:
 
* ex.
** "Go to the store." = "[you] Go to the store."
** "Stop!" = "[you} Stop!"
* for the SAT the imperative may come in the form of a command to the read, such as:
** "Take this idea, for example."
*** = "[you] Take this idea, for example." << as a sentence or independent clause
==== semicolons ; ====
* combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them
** as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts
* semicolons do (almost) '''ONE''' thing:
# combine ICs
* note that semicolons can -- but rarely:
** separate a list of IC's: 
*** as in "IC; IC; IC; IC."
** a semicolon may also be used as a "super comma" in order to emphasize separate elements in a list of common examples, usually following a colon:
*** as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing."
**** ex. "''On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''
**** the "super comma" does not have to follow a colon, so we could write:
***** ''"On our trip, we will visit tons of places, including in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''
*** the "super comma" is rarely used in practice and on the SAT test (see May QAS 2022 Writing section question no. 35 )
click EXPAND to see what SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<pre>Children were entertained by its plot about the antics of a mischievous cat and [9] [is] captivated by its eye-catching illustrations and memorable rhythms and rhymes.
<u>semicolons</u>:
# combine two ICs
#* "School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC
* can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)
** "School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC
* elimination:
** must have IC or complete sentences & thoughts on both sides of the semicolon
*** i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect
** if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>


==== commas , ====
A) is [NO CHANGE]
* create pauses
B) was
* commas do '''FIVE''' things:
C) has been
click EXPAND to see what COMMAS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
D) DELETE the underlined portion</pre>
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* '''the correct answer B) was matches or is "parallel" to the verb "were" from "Children were entertained"'''
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>commas</u>:
# combine IC, DC, or DC, IC
#* or IC, Phr  or Phr, IC
#** ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC
#** ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC
#*** = prepositional phrase, independent clause
# combine ICs
#* ''but only with a coordinating conjunction'' (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC
#* ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC"
#** "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC
#** "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC
# separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects)
#* ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O
# act parenthetically
#* ", .... ," (like these parentheses)
#** The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V
# introduce a direct quotation
#* ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!"
* elimination:
** commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically (see below for examples)
** commas can NOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
** 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another (called "compound" subjects, verbs, objects)
*** "Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy"
**** = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
</div>
 
==== parallel subject-verb agreement ====  
==== colons : ====
* subjects and verbs match singular vs. plural forms
* distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC
** = a form of "parallel" structure (i.e, matching singular or plural subjects and verbs)
* colons = do '''ONE''' thing:
* the SAT Writing measures student ability to recognize the conjugations of verbs and match them to the correct subject
# extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC
** note that this
#* i.e., a colon MUST be preceded by an IC
** ex.:
#* i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s
*** "People who live on an island know how to swim" v.
#** ''The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"'' 
*** "My friend who lives on an island knows how to swim"  
#*** = IC: list
**** "people" = plural, thus "people live" and "people know"  
#* just about any grammatical form can follow a colon, including
**** "friend" = singular, thus "friend lives" and "friend knows"
#** an IC, phrase, exclamation, multiple ICs with semicolons or coordinating conjunctions
click EXPAND for conjugation of "to live" and "to know"
#** a direct quotation (if that quotation is a complete sentence and if the colon is preceded by an IC
#** the exception is that colons are not followed by another colon
* colons <U>DO NOT</u>:
** follow a dependent clause
** interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) element in a sentence
*** ex., "''I went to the store''': because''' I needed some supplies''"
**** the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..."
*** or "''She knew''': that''' it was the right thing to do''"
**** the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates
** have multiple colons in a sentence
click EXPAND to see what COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
<u>colons</u>:
# extend or provide examples following an IC
* what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)
** except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect)
** or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)
** colons are usually followed by a list or an example
** a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:
*** ''The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!"'' = IC: IC
* elimination:
** if NOT preceded by an IC, eliminate the colon
** if another possible answer is a dash that is acting like a colon, then both cannot be correct, so eliminate
----------------------------------------------------------
</div>
 
====dashes -- ====
* separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon
* dashes do '''TWO''' things:
# act like a colon
# act like parentheses (...) = -...-
click EXPAND to see what DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
----------------------------------------------------------
{|  class="wikitable"
<u>dashes</u>:
| I||live||know||
# act like a colon
|-
#* ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list
| You ||live||know||
#* the dash is often used for emphasis (as opposed to a colon, which adds information)
|-
# act like parentheses (...) = -...-
| He/She/It ||lives||knows||& singular nouns
#* The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive"
|-
* elimination:
| We||live||know||
** if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)
|-
** if not acting like parentheses, and there is NOT an IC preceding the dash, eliminate
| They ||live||know||& plural nouns
** if another possible answer is a colon and the dash is not acting like a parentheses, then both cannot be correct
|-
----------------------------------------------------------
|}
</div>
</div>
==== parallel comparatives====
* when making a comparison, we must compare similar, or parallel, things
** thus the grammar of comparisons must also be parallel
** the SAT Writing measures student ability to maintain parallel comparisons
* as a rule,
** when comparing grammatical subjects (as in the subject of a clause),
*** use "than"
** when comparing objects, especially objects of a preposition,
*** use a relative pronoun such as "than that" or "of that"
* ex.:
** comparing subjects:
*** "The first strategy was more effective than the second one"
** comparing objects: * "The strategy of the first one was more effective than that of the second one"
*other example:
**"The students who studied hard performed better on the test than those who didn't study"
***maintains the parallel" "students who studied hard" with "those [students] who didn't study"
* or
** "Looking at the results, it is clear that the students who did study hard performed better on the test than did students who did not study hard."
*** maintains the parallel "students who did study hard" with "the students who did not study hard"
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>
She found that students who were required to volunteer rushed to complete their service hours in early high [19] school; they then did significantly less regular volunteer work in the twelfth grade [20] [than the service hours of those] not required to volunteer.


=== Apostrophes quick start guide ===
A) than the service hours of those [NO CHANGE]
* '''apostrophes''' do two things:
B) than did students who were
** create contractions ("it's" from "it is" or "can't" from "can not")
C) than hours worked by students
** show possession
D) compared with students
*** nouns possess nouns and nouns can only possess nouns (not verbs)
</pre>
*** punctuation can NOT separate the possessor noun from the possessed noun
* ''' B) "than did students who were not required" parallels to "students who did study hard"'''
*** adjectives may separate the two nouns, as in "The cowboy's fast horse"
** note that question 19 correct answer "D) sets up correct reading of question no. 20
** possessive apostrophes singular v plural:
</div>
*** ''''s''' for singular nouns ("that dog's toys") and '''s'''' for plural nouns ("those dogs' toys")
* elimination:
** if punctuation or a verb follow the possessor noun, eliminate (see examples below)
* note: use of an apostrophe to create a contraction with a noun and the verb, "to be" is informal and not measured on the SAT
** ex., "winning's good" for "winning is good" is informal
 
=== Conjunctions quick start guide ===
* '''conjunctions''' combine words, phrases, and clauses
** '''coordinating conjunction''' (CJ)
*** combines ICs (FANBOYS)
**** ''I was hungry, so I bought a burger''
* note: the word '''however''' is NOT a conjunction,
** therefore it must be combined with another CJ or a semicolon if combining two ICs
** '''subordinating conjunction''' (SJ)
*** = turns an IC into a DC by requiring additional ideas to complete the thought of the clause
*** ex. "I was hungry, so I bought a burger" = two IC w/ a CC
*** whereas, if we use the CS "since" = Since I was hungry, I bought a burger"
**** = DC, IC ("Since I was hungry is not a complete thought, therefore it is a DC, or subordinate clause)
* '''requisite or necessary clause or phrase''' (Phr)
** usually, when the SC follows the IC, there is not a comma
** the subordinating conjunction becames a relative conjunction
*** ''We couldn't play '''when it rained'''''
** just as SV or SVO are not separated by punctuation (because they are necessary or required of each other to make sense):
*** some clauses and phrases are requisite or necessary to complete a thought, which means they are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
*** ex. "I bought the shoes that were on sale" << "that were on sale" is necessary to the idea that "I bought" particular shoes
** see "Relative clause" below for more on essential and non-essential sentence elements
 
=== Prepositions quick start guide ===
* '''prepositions'''  
** include ''about, by, from, near, of, on'' , etc.
* prepositions create a relationship between nouns
** the nouns or other words that follow the preposition are called a "prepositional phrase" ("about something I once knew")
* prepositional phrases establish a relationship with a noun or as part of a subject-verb clause:
** ex. adding information to a subject noun: "The ideas of the professor are novel."
** ex. adding information to a subject-verb: "The professor was educated at Yale."
* for the SAT, only prepositions that come before the verb matter
* the noun in prepositional phrases are '''NEVER the subject of a sentence'''
** elimination:
*** for subject-verb matching, the preposition/ prepositional phrase is NOT the subject
**** ex. "Books about sailing are fun" and not "Books about sailing is fun"
***** "about" = a preposition, so "sailing" is not the subject and the verb is therefore matched to the plural "books"
 
== BIG IDEAS ==
* this S4Swiki entry is designed to help identify grammar, punctuation, usage and logic rules and conventions
* in general:
** any text that is not underlined is to be assumed as correct
*** therefore you can test grammatical rules based on it
* use the test to answer itself
* read punctuation "out loud" to yourself" so as not to miss it


=== Passage titles ===
==== parallel prepositions ====  
* use passage titles!
* if the object of a prepositional phrase modifies two nouns, it may require two separate, or parallel, prepositions:
** titles express author intent
* example:
** titles are frequently a thesis statements (no other details are provided)
** ''The couple wants love and respect for their marriage"
** titles generally answer the last question on each passage (not always)
*** if we remove "and love" we see that the sentence does not make sense:
*** "The couple wants love for their marriage"
** se we can fix it to read:
*** "The couple wants love in and respect for their marriage"


=== Writing section is rules-based ===
=== Practice ===
* answers and eliminations follow set grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions
[[File:SAT-what-effective-practice-looks-like.JPG|thumb|right|400px||What effective SAT prep practice looks like]]
* therefore, identify the rules as you practice & apply them in your elimination strategies
* see for recommendations on effective SAT prep methods here: [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=SAT_Reading#Practice| SAT Reading practice techniques]]
* see [[SAT Writing section grammar rules chart]] for quick start review of Writing section Rules & eliminations


=== Difficulty level ===  
=== Reading v. skimming ===
* difficulty level is based on the passage and not the questions
* "hard" reading is not necessary for Writing section success
** there can be difficult questions on easy passages, but the bulk of "hard" questions will coincide with difficult passages
* however, pure skimming is not recommended
* read for context but not necessarily for every detail


=== Elimination ===  
=== Synonymous answers===
* eliminate the "low-hanging fruit" first
* if two answers are synonymous, or essentially the same, then:
** i.e., the easy or most obvious eliminations
** eliminate because they can't both be right, so they are both wrong
* always eliminate for errors, don't select for correctness
* this elimination strategy is especially useful for punctuation and transition word questions
click EXPAND for examples of eliminating synonymous possible answers in CB practice tests
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf CB Writing practice test 9, question 14]:
<pre>
In 2013 Tallinn, Estonia, instituted fare-free rides for city residents (becoming the largest city in the world to do so), but car use in Tallinn has only slightly [14] [declined; as] a 2014 study by the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden found that car traffic in Tallinn was down less than 3 percent since it was enacted.


=== Grammar, logic & punctuation ===
A) declined; as [NO CHANGE]
* build grammar literacy as you practice
B) declined:
* speak punctuation as you read so as not to miss
C) declined,
* every sentence contains a SUBJECT and a VERB (and usually an OBJECT)
D) declined. As
** identify the CORE of the sentence (the "main clause")
</pre>
*** then identify the sentence core then you will see how the rest of the sentence is built out from there
* note that A) ''declined; as'' and D) ''declined. As'' do the same thing: a period and a semicolon both create a hard pause between independent clauses.
* editing or sentence placement questions follow simple logic, either:
** since both do the same thing and only one answer can be correct, then both are wrong
** chronology
* the correct answer is B) because it creates an appropriate setup of the following information:
*** what has to happen first or after
** answer C) is incorrect because it creates a comma splice; however, it would be correct if it were written "declined, as", but that is not one of the possible answers.
** presentation of ideas
[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf CB Writing practice test 9, question 29]:
*** what information belongs to a logical argument
<pre>The photo is then immersed in water and warmed. [29][In conclusion,] it is coated with lavender oil to give it (a protective finish).
*** i.e., "if this then that" or statements necessary for an argument
A) In conclusion, [NO CHANGE]
 
B) Finally,
=== Identify sentence core ===
C) Thus,
* every sentence starts with a subject and a verb (SV) and usually an object (thus, "SVO")
D) Nevertheless,
* identify the core of a sentence
</pre>
** then see how the sentence builds out from there
* note that A) ''In conclusion'' and B) ''Finally'' are synonymous, since both can't be right, they ar eboth wrong.  
** ex:
* the correct answer is B) Finally as it expresses a correct chronology
*** ''Jamal plays chess''. (subject + verb)
</div>
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess''. (adds prepositional phrase for when)
 
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends''. (adds prepositional phrases for where and with whom)
=== Timed test ===
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends since he can't make it there on Thursdays''. (adds [[subordinating conjunction]] since which creates the subordinate (or dependent) clause to express why)
* all SAT sections are timed
* finding the core SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT helps to identify other sentences parts and to avoid confusing or mismatching subject-verb agreement and other mistakes
** keep time awareness ''per passage''
** practice for accuracy first (regardless of time), then build efficiency (accuracy + speed)


=== Parallelism ===  
== General strategies & approaches ==
* the SAT Writing test frequently measures "parallelism"
* unlike on the Reading section, for the Writing section students are advised to review possible answers ''before'' reading the text
** or maintaining "parallel" verb tense, subject-verb agreement, prepositions, and comparatives
* speak punctuation to yourself while you read
==== parallel verb tense====
* click EXPAND for an example
** if one verb is in the past, then (usually) the other verbs in the sentence must also maintain "parallel" tense, i.e. also be in the past tense
* ex.
** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.
*** each verb, "went," "bought," and "returned" and in the same (past) tense
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 9]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Children were entertained by its plot about the antics of a mischievous cat and [9] [is] captivated by its eye-catching illustrations and memorable rhythms and rhymes.
*** when reading a sentence such as "John Stevens, a prominent researcher, said, "Look at me!"
*** read it as, "John Stevens, ["comma"] a prominent researcher, ["comma"] said, ["comma"] "["quotation mark"] Look at me!["exclamation point"]"["close quotation mark"]
*** this help you to identify important punctuation in sentences that you may otherwise miss
</div>


A) is [NO CHANGE]
=== Test & booklet formatting ===
B) was
* you will note that the Writing test will use page space in order to separate sentences or paragraphs across pages
C) has been
* you will have to flip pages back/forth to make sense across paragraphs and sentences
D) DELETE the underlined portion</pre>
* frequently, the SAT test will add graphs which will separate sentences and paragraphs by an additional page
* '''the correct answer B) was matches or is "parallel" to the verb "were" from "Children were entertained"'''
** or questions regarding the graph will be on a different page
</div>
* the Writing section lists most possible answer A's in the text itself and are marked "No Change"
==== subject-verb agreement ====  
** students can be fooled by the inline placement
* subjects and verbs match singular vs. plural forms
** so it is advised to ignore the possible answer while reading the text and consider it equally as you would the other possible answers
** = a form of "parallel" structure (i.e, matching singular or plural subjects and verbs)
* possible answers are only as <u>underlined</u>, so be careful to identify if punctuation is included or not in the underlined section
* the SAT Writing measures student ability to recognize the conjugations of verbs and match them to the correct subject
 
** note that this
=== Using titles ===
** ex.:
* Writing section passages do not have introductions
*** "People who live on an island know how to swim" v.
** therefore, passage titles are the only direct statement of author purpose or thesis
*** "My friend who lives on an island knows how to swim"
* titles will help answer questions, especially:
**** "people" = plural, thus "people live" and "people know"
*** add or delete questions ("focus" questions)
**** "friend" = singular, thus "friend lives" and "friend knows"
**** is the insertion or deletion consistent w/ the title?
click EXPAND for conjugation of "to live" and "to know"
*** final paragraph questions
**** last sentences of a passage generally summarize the main point, which is usually also expressed in the passage title
click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 2 from CB practice test 10:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
{|  class="wikitable"  
* Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
| I||live||know||
* Test 10, question 2:
|-
<pre>The writer wants to include a quotation by Hersey that supports the topic of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
| You ||live||know||
A) (NO CHANGE) interesting, since “an individual’s sense of wholeness... follows, and cannot precede, a sense of accomplishment.”
|-
B) interesting, since “learning starts with failure; the first failure is the beginning of education.”
| He/She/It ||lives||knows||& singular nouns
C) interesting because “journalism allows its readers to witness history; fiction gives its readers an opportunity to live it.”
|-
D) interesting with “drawings like those of the wonderfully imaginative geniuses among children’s illustrators.”</pre>
| We||live||know||
* elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
|-
** note: this assumes the student knows that the "Cat in a Hat" is an illustration book designed to teach reading (fairly common knowledge for English speakers)
| They ||live||know||& plural nouns
* x A) a sense of wholeness and accomplishment unrelated to the title << so eliminate
|-
* x B) failure has nothing to do with illustration books and reading<< so eliminate
|}
* x C) nothing about journalism in the title << so eliminate
* y D) drawings and children's illustration assumed in the title << correct
</div>
</div>
==== parallel comparatives====
click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 11 from CB practice test 10:
* when making a comparison, we must compare similar, or parallel, things
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** thus the grammar of comparisons must also be parallel
* Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
** the SAT Writing measures student ability to maintain parallel comparisons
* Test 10, question 11 -- the final question of the passage regarding the last sentence (thus a concluding sentence):
* as a rule,
** when comparing grammatical subjects (as in the subject of a clause),
*** use "than"
** when comparing objects, especially objects of a preposition,
*** use a relative pronoun such as "than that" or "of that"
* ex.:
** comparing subjects:
*** "The first strategy was more effective than the second one"
** comparing objects: * "The strategy of the first one was more effective than that of the second one"
*other example:
**"The students who studied hard performed better on the test than those who didn't study"
***maintains the parallel" "students who studied hard" with "those [students] who didn't study"
* or
** "Looking at the results, it is clear that the students who did study hard performed better on the test than did students who did not study hard."
*** maintains the parallel "students who did study hard" with "the students who did not study hard"
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>
<pre>
She found that students who were required to volunteer rushed to complete their service hours in early high [19] school; they then did significantly less regular volunteer work in the twelfth grade [20] [than the service hours of those] not required to volunteer.
Full sentence: "But perhaps the best proof of The Cat in the Hat’s success is not its influence on other books but its __"
 
Question: The writer wants a conclusion that restates the main themes of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
A) than the service hours of those [NO CHANGE]
A) (NO CHANGE) limited vocabulary and appealing word choices.
B) than did students who were
B) impressive worldwide sales that continue to remain high to this day.
C) than hours worked by students
C) enduring ability to delight children and engage them in learning how to read.
D) compared with students
D) important role in the history of illustration in the twentieth century</pre>
</pre>
* elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
* ''' B) "than did students who were not required" parallels to "students who did study hard"'''
* x A) title is not about word choices (or limiting vocabulary) << so eliminate
** note that question 19 correct answer "D) sets up correct reading of question no. 20
* x B) title is not about the book's sales, it's about changing children's education << so eliminate
* y C) we can infer that the title is about learning to read << correct
* x D) title is about children's education not history of illustration << so eliminate
</div>
</div>


==== parallel prepositions ====  
== Elimination strategies ==
* if the object of a prepositional phrase modifies two nouns, it may require two separate, or parallel, prepositions:
* where possible, re-write A) NO CHANGE with the actual word or phrase
* example:  
* look at possible wrong answers and identify:  
** ''The couple wants love and respect for their marriage"
** how they are similar
*** if we remove "and love" we see that the sentence does not make sense:
** how they are different
*** "The couple wants love for their marriage"
** pair similar possible answers
** se we can fix it to read:
*** you will notice how possible answers tend to operate in pairs
*** "The couple wants love in and respect for their marriage"
* go for the low-hanging fruit first:
 
** = eliminate the easy or obvious wrong answers first
=== Practice ===
* now read the relevant sentence/s or phrase/s from the passage
[[File:SAT-what-effective-practice-looks-like.JPG|thumb|right|400px||What effective SAT prep practice looks like]]
** speak the punctuation so that you don't miss anything
* see for recommendations on effective SAT prep methods here: [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=SAT_Reading#Practice| SAT Reading practice techniques]]
* apply your grammar, usage, and logic rules
 
=== Reading v. skimming ===
=== Identify & apply rules ===
* "hard" reading is not necessary for Writing section success
* every question measures some skill, rule or logic
* however, pure skimming is not recommended
** by identifying the rule, students may eliminate more accurately
* read for context but not necessarily for every detail
* rules for punctuation
 
* click EXPAND on elimination by punctuation rules
=== Synonymous answers===
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* if two answers are synonymous, or essentially the same, then:
* get the low-hanging fruit first:
** eliminate because they can't both be right, so they are both wrong
** identify a punctuation rule you know and eliminate the wrong possible answers
* this elimination strategy is especially useful for punctuation and transition word questions
* ex., Practice Test 1, Writing Q3
click EXPAND for examples of eliminating synonymous possible answers in CB practice tests
<pre>If it is improperly introduced into the environment, acid-whey [runoff can pollute waterways,] depleting the oxygen content of streams and rivers as it decomposes.</pre>
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>A) NO CHANGE << can pollute waterways,
[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf CB Writing practice test 9, question 14]:
B) can pollute waterway's,
<pre>
C) could have polluted waterways,
In 2013 Tallinn, Estonia, instituted fare-free rides for city residents (becoming the largest city in the world to do so), but car use in Tallinn has only slightly [14] [declined; as] a 2014 study by the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden found that car traffic in Tallinn was down less than 3 percent since it was enacted.
D) has polluted waterway’s,
 
A) declined; as [NO CHANGE]
B) declined:
C) declined,
D) declined. As
</pre>
</pre>
* note that A) ''declined; as'' and D) ''declined. As'' do the same thing: a period and a semicolon both create a hard pause between independent clauses.
* the easy elimination ("the low hanging fruit")
** since both do the same thing and only one answer can be correct, then both are wrong
** A and C do not have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
* the correct answer is B) because it creates an appropriate setup of the following information:
** B & D both have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
** answer C) is incorrect because it creates a comma splice; however, it would be correct if it were written "declined, as", but that is not one of the possible answers.
* apply the possessive noun rules:
[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf CB Writing practice test 9, question 29]:
** nouns can only possess other nouns
<pre>The photo is then immersed in water and warmed. [29][In conclusion,] it is coated with lavender oil to give it (a protective finish).
*** i.e., if possessor noun cannot be followed by a verb (as in "waterways' depleting" = incorrect)
A) In conclusion, [NO CHANGE]
** no punctuation comes in between a possessor noun and the possessed noun (as in "waterways', depleting" = incorrect)
B) Finally,
** only an adjective can separate a possessor noun from the possessed noun
C) Thus,
*** ex. "the dog's tasty bone" ("tasty" is an adjective that describes the bone)
D) Nevertheless,
* therefore B & D must be wrong because the possessive noun "waterway's" is followed by a comma ("waterway's,") and a verb "depleting"
</pre>
* note that A) ''In conclusion'' and B) ''Finally'' are synonymous, since both can't be right, they ar eboth wrong.
* the correct answer is B) Finally as it expresses a correct chronology
</div>
</div>
* rules for usage
* rules for logic & chronology


=== Timed test ===
== Common errors ==
* all SAT sections are timed
=== adverbs used to combine independent clauses ===
** keep time awareness ''per passage''
** practice for accuracy first (regardless of time), then build efficiency (accuracy + speed)


== General strategies & approaches ==
* adverbs and other transition words are not coordinating conjunctions that combine independent clauses
* unlike on the Reading section, for the Writing section students are advised to review possible answers ''before'' reading the text
* especially "however," which cannot combine independent clauses
* speak punctuation to yourself while you read
 
* click EXPAND for an example
=== emphasis shift ===
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
logical usage
*** when reading a sentence such as "John Stevens, a prominent researcher, said, "Look at me!"
*** read it as, "John Stevens, ["comma"] a prominent researcher, ["comma"] said, ["comma"] "["quotation mark"] Look at me!["exclamation point"]"["close quotation mark"]
*** this help you to identify important punctuation in sentences that you may otherwise miss
</div>


=== Test & booklet formatting ===
=== grammatical usage ===
* you will note that the Writing test will use page space in order to separate sentences or paragraphs across pages
* misplaced or dangling modifier
* you will have to flip pages back/forth to make sense across paragraphs and sentences
* frequently, the SAT test will add graphs which will separate sentences and paragraphs by an additional page
** or questions regarding the graph will be on a different page
* the Writing section lists most possible answer A's in the text itself and are marked "No Change"
** students can be fooled by the inline placement
** so it is advised to ignore the possible answer while reading the text and consider it equally as you would the other possible answers
* possible answers are only as <u>underlined</u>, so be careful to identify if punctuation is included or not in the underlined section


=== Using titles ===
=== object preposition mistaken for subject ===
* Writing section passages do not have introductions
 
** therefore, passage titles are the only direct statement of author purpose or thesis
*''A census by park rangers in Australia in 2015 of kangaroos '''show/shows''' population declines''
* titles will help answer questions, especially:
* ''A census by park rangers in Australia in 2015 of kangaroos '''show/shows''' population declines''
*** add or delete questions ("focus" questions)
** ignore the prepositional phrase/s in order to identify the correct subject for the verb "show/shows":
**** is the insertion or deletion consistent w/ the title?
** ''A census <s>by park rangers</s> i<s>n Australia</s> i<s>n 2015</s> <s>of kangaroos</s> '''show/shows''' population declines''
*** final paragraph questions
** thus ''A census '''<s>show/</s>shows''' population declines'' << singular "census" matches singular verb "shows"
**** last sentences of a passage generally summarize the main point, which is usually also expressed in the passage title
 
click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 2 from CB practice test 10:
=== parallelism mistakes ===
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* comparison mismatch
* Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
** comparisons must be parallel
* Test 10, question 2:
** often introduced by "than" or "more"
<pre>The writer wants to include a quotation by Hersey that supports the topic of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
** if the comparison is an action, the verb must be included in the comparison
A) (NO CHANGE) interesting, since “an individual’s sense of wholeness... follows, and cannot precede, a sense of accomplishment.”
** sometimes the comparison is implied
B) interesting, since “learning starts with failure; the first failure is the beginning of education.”
** examples
C) interesting because “journalism allows its readers to witness history; fiction gives its readers an opportunity to live it.”
*** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than the tests of students who do not''
D) interesting with “drawings like those of the wonderfully imaginative geniuses among children’s illustrators.”</pre>
**** = incorrect because it is comparing "students who study hard" with "the tests of students"
* elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
*** correct =
** note: this assumes the student knows that the "Cat in a Hat" is an illustration book designed to teach reading (fairly common knowledge for English speakers)
**** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than students who do not''
* x A) a sense of wholeness and accomplishment unrelated to the title << so eliminate
***** note that "study hard" is implied in the comparison "than students who do not study hard"
* x B) failure has nothing to do with illustration books and reading<< so eliminate
* lists mismatch or inconsistency
* x C) nothing about journalism in the title << so eliminate
** lists must be grammatically and logically parallel
* y D) drawings and children's illustration assumed in the title << correct
** ex.
</div>
*** ''The dog chewed on a bone, a toy, and then slept.''
click EXPAND for example of using the title to answer question 11 from CB practice test 10:
*** the dog may have slept, but it does not belong in the list of things it chewed on
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
*** correct =
* Passage title: "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
**** ''The dog chewed on a bone and a toy and then slept.''
* Test 10, question 11 -- the final question of the passage regarding the last sentence (thus a concluding sentence):
 
<pre>
=== punctuation & combining clauses & phrases ===
Full sentence: "But perhaps the best proof of The Cat in the Hat’s success is not its influence on other books but its __"
* comma splice
Question: The writer wants a conclusion that restates the main themes of the passage. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
* run-on sentence
A) (NO CHANGE) limited vocabulary and appealing word choices.
 
B) impressive worldwide sales that continue to remain high to this day.
=== punctuation between restrictive (necessary) sentence elements ===
C) enduring ability to delight children and engage them in learning how to read.
D) important role in the history of illustration in the twentieth century</pre>
* elimination using the title, "How a Cat in a Hat Changed Children’s Education"
* x A) title is not about word choices (or limiting vocabulary) << so eliminate
* x B) title is not about the book's sales, it's about changing children's education << so eliminate
* y C) we can infer that the title is about learning to read << correct
* x D) title is about children's education not history of illustration << so eliminate
</div>


== Elimination strategies ==
* "restrictive" sentence elements are not separated from one another by punctuation
* where possible, re-write A) NO CHANGE with the actual word or phrase
* SAT will often add a colon, comma or semicolon between restrictive sentence elements:
* look at possible wrong answers and identify:  
* ex.
** how they are similar
** ''The doctor explained that: the problem is severe''
** how they are different
*** incorrect colon separating "that" (dependent clause conjunction) from "the problem"
** pair similar possible answers
*** here "that" is a conjunction that combines the independent clause "the doctor explained" with the dependent clause "the problem is severe"
*** you will notice how possible answers tend to operate in pairs
 
* go for the low-hanging fruit first:
=== subject-verb mismatch & parallelism ===
** = eliminate the easy or obvious wrong answers first
* verb tense switch in same sentence
* now read the relevant sentence/s or phrase/s from the passage
** maintain parallel or logically consistent verb tense
** speak the punctuation so that you don't miss anything
** ex.
* apply your grammar, usage, and logic rules
*** When the scientists discovered a new species, and they believe if
* subject-verb conjugation mismatch
=== Identify & apply rules ===
** always regards third person singular or plural mismatches (it v. they)
* every question measures some skill, rule or logic
 
** by identifying the rule, students may eliminate more accurately
== Parts of speech & rules ==
* rules for punctuation
* identifying parts of speech will yield higher scores
* click EXPAND on elimination by punctuation rules
* the Parts of Speech are generally considered:  
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** 1. adjective 2. adverb; 3. article; 4. conjunction; 5. determiner; 6. interjection; 7 noun;  8 preposition; 9. pronoun; 10. verb
* get the low-hanging fruit first:
** see this article for more details on [[Parts of speech]] (which includes "particle" as an additional part of speech, thus there are 11 parts of speech)
** identify a punctuation rule you know and eliminate the wrong possible answers
* below sections will expand on word parts of speech and their associated rules and applications to the SAT Writing test
* ex., Practice Test 1, Writing Q3
<pre>If it is improperly introduced into the environment, acid-whey [runoff can pollute waterways,] depleting the oxygen content of streams and rivers as it decomposes.</pre>
<pre>A) NO CHANGE << can pollute waterways,
B) can pollute waterway's,
C) could have polluted waterways,
D) has polluted waterway’s,
</pre>
* the easy elimination ("the low hanging fruit")
** A and C do not have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
** B & D both have the apostrophe indicating the possessive form
* apply the possessive noun rules:
** nouns can only possess other nouns
*** i.e., if possessor noun cannot be followed by a verb (as in "waterways' depleting" = incorrect)
** no punctuation comes in between a possessor noun and the possessed noun (as in "waterways', depleting" = incorrect)
** only an adjective can separate a possessor noun from the possessed noun
*** ex. "the dog's tasty bone" ("tasty" is an adjective that describes the bone)
* therefore B & D must be wrong because the possessive noun "waterway's" is followed by a comma ("waterway's,") and a verb "depleting"
</div>
* rules for usage
* rules for logic & chronology


== Common errors ==
== Adjective ==
=== adverbs used to combine independent clauses ===
* = modify nouns
* for the SAT Writing, pay attention to adjectives in order to:
** to identify context of vocabulary word questions
** identify punctuation mistakes
* adjectives are always singular, even with plural noun/s
*** ex. "happy dogs" or "red shoes" (as opposed to "happys dogs" or "reds shoes")
* adjectives and punctuation
** adjectives are not separated from the noun they modify by punctuation
*** ex.: "happy dog"  or "red shoe"
** including use of multiple adjectives that modify a single noun
*** ex.: "happy playful dog" or "old red shoe"
click expand for an example of elimination using punctuation following from CB Writing practice test 8, question 13
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Buildings are [13] [draped with festive, red,
banners,] and garlands.


* adverbs and other transition words are not coordinating conjunctions that combine independent clauses
A) draped with festive, red, banners, [NO CHANGE]
* especially "however," which cannot combine independent clauses
B) draped, with festive red banners,
 
C) draped with festive red banners—
=== emphasis shift ===
D) draped with festive red banners
logical usage
</pre>
eliminate A) bc the adjectives "festive" and "red" cannot be separated from the noun they modify, "banners"
click EXPAND for additional eliminations and the correct answer:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* x A) draped with festive, red, banners, [NO CHANGE]
** eliminate as per above because of comma between the adjectives "festive," "red" and the noun they modify "banners"
* x B) draped, with festive red banners,
** eliminate because "with" creates a "requisite," "restrictive," or "necessary" phrase, which means that it cannot be separated from the clause by a comma ("draped with...")
* x C) draped with festive red banners— 
** eliminate because it incorrectly separates the object "garlands" from the verb "are" and subsequent list of parallel objects (festive red banners)
* y D) draped with festive red banners 
** creates a correct list of objects for the SV clause "Buildings are"
</div>
</div>
=== dangling and misplaced modifiers ===
* see the entry here on [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#modifier_errors:_dangling_modifiers Modifier errors (Grammar)]


=== grammatical usage ===
== Adverb ==
* misplaced or dangling modifier
* adverbs usually end with -ly and act to qualify or further describe a verb (“She ran quickly”)
* other adverbs include, very, much, more, many
* for the SAT Writing, note that '''however''' is an adverb and not a coordinating conjunction ("fanboys")
* see
** "conjunctive adverb" for more on THAMOs (conjunctive adverbs) like "however"
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules#however]]


=== object preposition mistaken for subject ===
== Noun ==
* nouns = people, places things, act as subjects or objects
** proper nouns are capitalized


=== parallelism mistakes ===
* comparison mismatch
** comparisons must be parallel
** often introduced by "than" or "more"
** if the comparison is an action, the verb must be included in the comparison
** sometimes the comparison is implied
** examples
*** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than the tests of students who do not''
**** = incorrect because it is comparing "students who study hard" with "the tests of students"
*** correct =
**** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than students who do not''
***** note that "study hard" is implied in the comparison "than students who do not study hard"
* lists mismatch or inconsistency
** lists must be grammatically and logically parallel
** ex.
*** ''The dog chewed on a bone, a toy, and then slept.''
*** the dog may have slept, but it does not belong in the list of things it chewed on
*** correct =
**** ''The dog chewed on a bone and a toy and then slept.''


=== punctuation & combining clauses & phrases ===
=== noun phrase ===
* comma splice
* any phrase (sentence part that does not have a subject-verb) that consists of nouns, including:
* run-on sentence
** appositive noun phrase
** attributive noun or "noun adjunct"


=== punctuation between restrictive (necessary) sentence elements ===
=== apposite noun, attributive noun, or noun adjunct (noun as adjective) ===
* a noun that acts as an adjective to describe another noun next to it
** = "attributive" "apposite" or "noun adjunct"
*** "attributive noun" bc it adds an "attribute" to another noun:
**** "dog food" for "food that is for dogs"
*** "apposite" = "in relation to"
**** thus "apposite noun" = the noun in relation to the other next to it ("brick building")
*** "adjunct" = "supplementary", as in supports or adds to another noun ("internet security")
* attributive nouns can be accompanied by modifier, such as "yummy dog food"


* "restrictive" sentence elements are not separated from one another by punctuation
=== appositive: nouns as parenthetical or introductory phrases ===
* SAT will often add a colon, comma or semicolon between restrictive sentence elements:
* "appositive" is from Latin for "to put near"
* ex.
* = nouns that explain another noun (or pronouns)
** ''The doctor explained that: the problem is severe''
* = nouns that add to or qualify another noun
*** incorrect colon separating "that" (dependent clause conjunction) from "the problem"
* appositives used parenthetically:
*** here "that" is a conjunction that combines the independent clause "the doctor explained" with the dependent clause "the problem is severe"
** "Steve, my little brother, hates Minecraft."
*** "my little brother" = appositive, as it identifies, in a parenthetical form, who Steve is
** note the commas:  
*** commas set aside appositives / appositive phrases when the information is parenthetical, i.e.  
** the appositive is not necessary for the sentence to make sense
** so, like an adjective, it acts as additional information only
** SAT Writing will typically use appositives regarding the profession or title of a person
*** and will exclude one of or delete the necessary commas in wrong answers:
Click EXPAND to see example from CB practice test 1, question 15:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>But Jason [15] [Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State] believes that another factor added to the early thaw; the “dark snow” problem.


=== subject-verb mismatch & parallelism ===
A) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State [NO CHANGE]
* verb tense switch in same sentence
B) Box an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
** maintain parallel or logically consistent verb tense
C) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
** ex.
D) Box, an associate professor of geology, at Ohio State
*** When the scientists discovered a new species, and they believe if
</pre>
* subject-verb conjugation mismatch
* the correct answer C) places the commas around the appositive phrase, "Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State," thus correctly adding that non-essential, parenthetical information, separated by commas
** always regards third person singular or plural mismatches (it v. they)
** note that "Jason Box" is the subject of the verb "believes"
 
</div>
== Parts of speech & rules ==
* appositives without commas
* identifying parts of speech will yield higher scores
** = "essential appositive"
* the Parts of Speech are generally considered:  
** commas are not used when the appositive is necessary for the sentence to make sense
** 1. adjective 2. adverb; 3. article; 4. conjunction; 5. determiner; 6. interjection; 7 noun; 8 preposition; 9. pronoun; 10. verb
** ex.: "My little brother Steve hates Minecraft"
** see this article for more details on [[Parts of speech]] (which includes "particle" as an additional part of speech, thus there are 11 parts of speech)
*** the subject is "Steve"
* below sections will expand on word parts of speech and their associated rules and applications to the SAT Writing test
*** "my little brother" is the appositive, i.e., it describes who Steve is, only directly, not parenthetically
* appositives as introductory phrases:
** "A little brat, my brother Steve hates Minecraft"
** "An expert gamer, my other brother John loves Minecraft"
*** these phrases are not essential for the sentence to make sense
* See:
**[http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/appositive.htm The Appositive: Recognize an appositive when you find one (chompchomp.com)]


== Adjective ==
=== consecutive nouns ===  
* = modify nouns
* nouns that are next to one another in a sentence can be doing one of several things:
* for the SAT Writing, pay attention to adjectives in order to:
*# making a list, if separated by commas
** to identify context of vocabulary word questions
*#* ex. "Tom, Joe & Buck went hunting, fishing, and hiking."
** identify punctuation mistakes
*#** the nouns are multiple subjects and objects separated by commas
* adjectives are always singular, even with plural noun/s
*# indicating possession if the first noun has an apostrophe and there is no punctuation separating them
*** ex. "happy dogs" or "red shoes" (as opposed to "happys dogs" or "reds shoes")
*#* ex. "the dog's food"  
* adjectives and punctuation
*# acting as distinct Indirect and Direct Objects, if not separated by punctuation
** adjectives are not separated from the noun they modify by punctuation
*#* ex. "The owner gave the dogs food"
*** ex.: "happy dog" or "red shoe"
*#** dogs = Indirect Object (it is the recipient of the action but not the "direct" result of the action itself)
** including use of multiple adjectives that modify a single noun
*#** food = Direct Object (it is the direct result of the action)
*** ex.: "happy playful dog" or "old red shoe"
*#*** i.e. the owner gave "food" (DO) to the dogs (IO)
click expand for an example of elimination using punctuation following from CB Writing practice test 8, question 13
* # the first noun acting as an adjective, if not separated by punctuation and if the 1st noun is singular
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
*#* ex. "dog food"
<pre>Buildings are [13] [draped with festive, red,
*#** dog = a noun that describes, as an adjective, what kind of food it is
banners,] and garlands.


A) draped with festive, red, banners, [NO CHANGE]
=== noun modifying another noun (attributive noun) ===
B) draped, with festive red banners,
{{Noun as modifier}}
C) draped with festive red banners—
* SAT Writing test questions on attributive nouns:
D) draped with festive red banners
** they may also appear in the passages
</pre>
** and they can help the student to isolate word parts and understand what is going on in a sentence, especially to eliminate possessive noun forms
eliminate A) bc the adjectives "festive" and "red" cannot be separated from the noun they modify, "banners"
click EXPAND for an example of how identifying attributive noun can help answer [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 14]]:
click EXPAND for additional eliminations and the correct answer:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* x A) draped with festive, red, banners, [NO CHANGE]  
<pre>By requiring students to do community service in order to graduate, school [14] [officials’ are taking away students’] choice to give up their time for nonprofit activities, making volunteerism less meaningful and pleasurable.
** eliminate as per above because of comma between the adjectives "festive," "red" and the noun they modify "banners"
* x B) draped, with festive red banners,
** eliminate because "with" creates a "requisite," "restrictive," or "necessary" phrase, which means that it cannot be separated from the clause by a comma ("draped with...")
* x C) draped with festive red banners— 
** eliminate because it incorrectly separates the object "garlands" from the verb "are" and subsequent list of parallel objects (festive red banners)
* y D) draped with festive red banners 
** creates a correct list of objects for the SV clause "Buildings are"
</div>
</div>
=== dangling and misplaced modifiers ===
* see the entry here on [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#modifier_errors:_dangling_modifiers Modifier errors (Grammar)]


== Adverb ==
A) officials’ are taking away students’ [NO CHANGE]
* adverbs usually end with -ly and act to qualify or further describe a verb (“She ran quickly”)
B) officials are taking away students
* other adverbs include, very, much, more, many
C) officials are taking away student’s
* for the SAT Writing, note that '''however''' is an adverb and not a coordinating conjunction ("fanboys")
D) officials are taking away students'
* see
</pre>
** "conjunctive adverb" for more on THAMOs (conjunctive adverbs) like "however"
* elimination:
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules#however]]
** x A) the noun "official's" incorrectly possesses the verb "are" (see possessive nouns for more)
** x B) "students choice" = an incorrect plural form of the attributive noun "student" (student choice = the kind of choice for students)
* we now have the distinction between C) student's (singular possessive) D) students' (plural possessive)
** thus we match the correct D) students' to "By requiring students" from the sentence
</div>
* note that when two nouns are next to one another without apostrophes (possessive forms), it is not necessarily an attributive noun
** it could also be two nouns juxtaposed as direct and indirect objects
click EXPAND for an example of how two nouns next to one as direct and indirect objects not possessive or attributive nouns [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 36]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Tuition-reimbursement programs signal that employers offer their [36] [workers' opportunities] for personal and professional development. </pre>


== Noun ==
A) workers' opportunities [NO CHANGE]
* nouns = people, places things, act as subjects or objects
B) workers opportunities'
** proper nouns are capitalized
C) workers opportunities
D) workers' opportunity's


* elimination:
** x B) workers opportunities' << "opportunity's" cannot possess the next word, "for" (a preposition); nouns can only possess nouns, so eliminate
** x D) workers' opportunity's << same as B)
* we now have either "worker's opportunities" or "workers opportunities"
** in context, do the "workers" possess "opportunities"
*** reading the sentence, we see that the core SV of the sentence is: "programs offer"
*** the verb "offer" requires an object: what does it offer? = "opportunities" = the direct object of the verb "offer"
*** then we see that "programs offer opportunities" to whom? = "workers" = the indirect object of "offer"
*** therefore we eliminate A) because "workers" do not possess "opportunities", they are being "offered them," so C)
</div>


=== noun phrase ===
== Pronoun ==
* any phrase (sentence part that does not have a subject-verb) that consists of nouns, including:
* "pro" = "for"
** appositive noun phrase
* "noun" = "word"
** attributive noun or "noun adjunct"  
** therefore, pronoun = "for the word"


=== apposite noun, attributive noun, or noun adjunct (noun as adjective) ===
=== pronoun reference/ antecedent ===  
* a noun that acts as an adjective to describe another noun next to it
* pronouns are a reference to a previously (or sometimes later) stated noun or idea
** = "attributive" "apposite" or "noun adjunct"
** pronoun ''antecedent'' (when the noun comes before the pronoun) to a previously stated noun:
*** "attributive noun" bc it adds an "attribute" to another noun:  
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It's a pretty color."
**** "dog food" for "food that is for dogs"
** pronoun antecedent to a previously stated idea:
*** "apposite" = "in relation to"
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It makes me happy."
**** thus "apposite noun" = the noun in relation to the other next to it ("brick building")
** pronoun precedent (pronoun comes before the noun) to a subsequently stated noun (uncommon):
*** "adjunct" = "supplementary", as in supports or adds to another noun ("internet security")
*** "It went well, but the test was still hard."
* attributive nouns can be accompanied by modifier, such as "yummy dog food"
 
=== pronoun functions in Writing section questions ===
* in the Writing section, pronouns mark important distinctions for:
** subject-verb matching
** object matching/ identification
** dependent clauses
*** especially subordinate clauses ("..., which are ....") and relative clauses ("... that are...")


=== appositive: nouns as parenthetical or introductory phrases ===
=== "any" and other pronouns with multiple parts of speech (not always a pronoun) ===
* "appositive" is from Latin for "to put near"
* pronouns can also be determiners, subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns that act distinctly
* = nouns that explain another noun (or pronouns)
** "that" can be:
* = nouns that add to or qualify another noun
*** "That is the question!"  << "that" = pronoun/ subject of the sentence
* appositives used parenthetically:
*** "That point is irrelevant" << "that"= adjective / determiner (specifies "point")
** "Steve, my little brother, hates Minecraft."
*** "The point that is irrelevant is not the question" << "that" = relative pronoun/subject of the relative clause ("that is irrelevant")
*** "my little brother" = appositive, as it identifies, in a parenthetical form, who Steve is
** "any" can be:
** note the commas:
*** "Any difficulty is to be ignored." << "any" = determiner / adjective
*** commas set aside appositives / appositive phrases when the information is parenthetical, i.e.
**** note that the subject is "difficulty" and not "any"
** the appositive is not necessary for the sentence to make sense
*** "Any of you guys want candy?" << "any" = pronoun / subject
** so, like an adjective, it acts as additional information only
**** "of you guys" = prepositional phrase, which is never the subject of a sentence
** SAT Writing will typically use appositives regarding the profession or title of a person
**** "any" can act as a singular or plural pronoun
*** and will exclude one of or delete the necessary commas in wrong answers:
***** "Any is better than none"
Click EXPAND to see example from CB practice test 1, question 15:
***** "Any of them are crazy"
click EXPAND for example of "any" as a determiner and not a subject pronoun on CB practice test 9, question 35:  
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>But Jason [15] [Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State] believes that another factor added to the early thaw; the “dark snow” problem.
<pre>Any New York City construction project using municipal funds [35] ____  required to consider whether historical artifacts will be affected during construction... </pre>
 
A) are <br>B) have been <br>C) is <br>D) were<br>
A) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State [NO CHANGE]
* the subject of the clause is "project" and not "any" or "funds"
B) Box an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
** therefore, the subject-verb agreement is "project is" (third person singular conjugation "is")
C) Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State,
* A) ''are'' is designed to fool the student into match "any" or "funds" as plural (conjugating as "are")
D) Box, an associate professor of geology, at Ohio State
**  here, "any" is a determiner/adjective that modifies "project"
</pre>
*** thus, "any", "New York City," and "construction" are all adjective modifiers
* the correct answer C) places the commas around the appositive phrase, "Box, an associate professor of geology at Ohio State," thus correctly adding that non-essential, parenthetical information, separated by commas
**** any = determiner(adjective) that describes "project"
** note that "Jason Box" is the subject of the verb "believes"
**** New York City = attributive noun that describes "project"
**** construction = attributive that describes "project"
**  here, "funds" is an object of the present participle adjective "using" (verb acting like an adjective)
*** thus, "using" and "funds" are a modifying phrase to describe "project"
</div>
</div>
* appositives without commas
** = "essential appositive"
** commas are not used when the appositive is necessary for the sentence to make sense
** ex.: "My little brother Steve hates Minecraft"
*** the subject is "Steve"
*** "my little brother" is the appositive, i.e., it describes who Steve is, only directly, not parenthetically
* appositives as introductory phrases:
** "A little brat, my brother Steve hates Minecraft"
** "An expert gamer, my other brother John loves Minecraft"
*** these phrases are not essential for the sentence to make sense
* See:
**[http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/appositive.htm  The Appositive: Recognize an appositive when you find one (chompchomp.com)]


=== consecutive nouns ===  
=== personal v. relative pronoun ===
* nouns that are next to one another in a sentence can be doing one of several things:
* personal pronoun
*# making a list, if separated by commas
** = ''I, me, you, he/she/it, him/her, we/us, they/them''
*#* ex. "Tom, Joe & Buck went hunting, fishing, and hiking."
** personal pronouns act as a subject or object of a sentence or preposition:
*#** the nouns are multiple subjects and objects separated by commas
*** subjective case: ''I, you, he/she/it, we, they''
*# indicating possession if the first noun has an apostrophe and there is no punctuation separating them
*** objective case: ''me, you, him/her/it, us, them''
*#* ex. "the dog's food"  
**** note that the noun in a preposition is an object, so it uses the objective case
*# acting as distinct Indirect and Direct Objects, if not separated by punctuation
***** ex. "''the girl next to me''", "t''he desk between you and me''"
*#* ex. "The owner gave the dogs food"
* relative pronoun
*#** dogs = Indirect Object (it is the recipient of the action but not the "direct" result of the action itself)
** = a pronoun that creates a conjunction between an independent and a dependent or relative clause
*#** food = Direct Object (it is the direct result of the action)
** include: ''that, when, where, which, who, whom, whose''
*#*** i.e. the owner gave "food" (DO) to the dogs (IO)
*** "who" relative pronouns have subjective, objective and possessive cases
* # the first noun acting as an adjective, if not separated by punctuation and if the 1st noun is singular
**** subjective: ''who''
*#* ex. "dog food"
**** objective ''whom''
*#** dog = a noun that describes, as an adjective, what kind of food it is
**** possessive: ''whose''
==== personal and relative pronouns and prepositional phrases ====
* ex., "''of which''", "''of whom''" v. "''of them''"
** the preposition "of" creates a relationship
** the personal pronoun "them" is the object of a preposition:
*** ''The players took off their jerseys, and only two '''of them''' were dirty''
*** ''Most of the jerseys used by the players were clean, but two '''of them''' were dirty''
**** "two" = the subject
**** "of them" = prepositional phrase, with "them" the object of the preposition
***** "them" refers to "jerseys"
** the relative pronouns, "that", which" or "who" create a relative clause and acts as the subject of that clause:
*** "''The players took off their jerseys, '''which''' were almost all perfectly clean''"
**** "which" = the subject of the relative clause
**** "which" refers to "jerseys"
*** "''The game was one by five players, of whom we are most proud''
**** "we" = subject of the relative clause
**** "of whom" = prepositional phrase (adverbial as it modifies "are")
**** "whom" refers to "the players"


=== noun modifying another noun (attributive noun) ===
=== possessive personal pronoun ===
{{Noun as modifier}}
* personal pronouns have a distinct form to indicate possession
* SAT Writing test questions on attributive nouns:
* see below under "Apostrophe" for distinctions between possessive pronouns and contracts
** they may also appear in the passages
** such as ''its'' (possessive pronoun) vs. ''it's'' (contraction of "it is")
** and they can help the student to isolate word parts and understand what is going on in a sentence, especially to eliminate possessive noun forms
click EXPAND for an example of how identifying attributive noun can help answer [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 14]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>By requiring students to do community service in order to graduate, school [14] [officials’ are taking away students’] choice to give up their time for nonprofit activities, making volunteerism less meaningful and pleasurable.


A) officials’ are taking away students’ [NO CHANGE]
=== pronoun forms chart ===
B) officials are taking away students
C) officials are taking away student’s
D) officials are taking away students'
</pre>
* elimination:
** x A) the noun "official's" incorrectly possesses the verb "are" (see possessive nouns for more)
** x B) "students choice" = an incorrect plural form of the attributive noun "student" (student choice = the kind of choice for students)
* we now have the distinction between C) student's (singular possessive) D) students' (plural possessive)
** thus we match the correct D) students' to "By requiring students" from the sentence
</div>
* note that when two nouns are next to one another without apostrophes (possessive forms), it is not necessarily an attributive noun
** it could also be two nouns juxtaposed as direct and indirect objects
click EXPAND for an example of how two nouns next to one as direct and indirect objects not possessive or attributive nouns [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 36]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Tuition-reimbursement programs signal that employers offer their [36] [workers' opportunities] for personal and professional development. </pre>


A) workers' opportunities [NO CHANGE]
{| class="wikitable"
B) workers opportunities'
|+ Pronoun Forms
C) workers opportunities
| '''Subjective form''' ||'''Objective form''' ||'''Possessive'''  
D) workers' opportunity's
'''adjective'''
 
| '''Possessive'''
* elimination:
'''Predicate adjective'''
** x B) workers opportunities' << "opportunity's" cannot possess the next word, "for" (a preposition); nouns can only possess nouns, so eliminate
|'''Reflexive form'''
** x D) workers' opportunity's << same as B)
|-
* we now have either "worker's opportunities" or "workers opportunities"
| I
** in context, do the "workers" possess "opportunities"
|| me
*** reading the sentence, we see that the core SV of the sentence is: "programs offer"
|| mine
*** the verb "offer" requires an object: what does it offer? = "opportunities" = the direct object of the verb "offer"
|| mine
*** then we see that "programs offer opportunities" to whom? = "workers" = the indirect object of "offer"
|myself
*** therefore we eliminate A) because "workers" do not possess "opportunities", they are being "offered them," so C)
|-
</div>
| you (singular)
 
|| you
== Pronoun ==
|| your
* "pro" = "for"
|| yours
* "noun" = "word"
|| yourself
** therefore, pronoun = "for the word"
|-
 
|he
=== pronoun reference/ antecedent ===
|him
* pronouns are a reference to a previously (or sometimes later) stated noun or idea
|his
** pronoun ''antecedent'' (when the noun comes before the pronoun) to a previously stated noun:
|his
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It's a pretty color."
|himself
** pronoun antecedent to a previously stated idea:
|-
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It makes me happy."
|she
** pronoun precedent (pronoun comes before the noun) to a subsequently stated noun (uncommon):
|her
*** "It went well, but the test was still hard."
|her
 
|hers
=== pronoun functions in Writing section questions ===
|herself
* in the Writing section, pronouns mark important distinctions for:
|-
** subject-verb matching
|it
** object matching/ identification
|it
** dependent clauses
|its
*** especially subordinate clauses ("..., which are ....") and relative clauses ("... that are...")
|its
 
|itself
=== "any" and other pronouns with multiple parts of speech (not always a pronoun) ===
|-
* pronouns can also be determiners, subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns that act distinctly
|we
** "that" can be:
|us
*** "That is the question!"  << "that" = pronoun/ subject of the sentence
|our
*** "That point is irrelevant" << "that"= adjective / determiner (specifies "point")
|ours
*** "The point that is irrelevant is not the question" << "that" = relative pronoun/subject of the relative clause ("that is irrelevant")
|ourselves
** "any" can be:
|-
*** "Any difficulty is to be ignored." << "any" = determiner / adjective
|you (plural)
**** note that the subject is "difficulty" and not "any"
|you
*** "Any of you guys want candy?" << "any" = pronoun / subject
|your
**** "of you guys" = prepositional phrase, which is never the subject of a sentence
|yours
**** "any" can act as a singular or plural pronoun
|yourselves
***** "Any is better than none"
|-
***** "Any of them are crazy"
|they
click EXPAND for example of "any" as a determiner and not a subject pronoun on CB practice test 9, question 35:
|them
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
|their
<pre>Any New York City construction project using municipal funds [35] ____  required to consider whether historical artifacts will be affected during construction... </pre>
|theirs
A) are <br>B) have been <br>C) is <br>D) were<br>
|themselves
* the subject of the clause is "project" and not "any" or "funds"
|}
** therefore, the subject-verb agreement is "project is" (third person singular conjugation "is")
* A) ''are'' is designed to fool the student into match "any" or "funds" as plural (conjugating as "are")
**  here, "any" is a determiner/adjective that modifies "project"
*** thus, "any", "New York City," and "construction" are all adjective modifiers
**** any = determiner(adjective) that describes "project"
**** New York City = attributive noun that describes "project"
**** construction = attributive that describes "project"
**  here, "funds" is an object of the present participle adjective "using" (verb acting like an adjective)
*** thus, "using" and "funds" are a modifying phrase to describe "project"
</div>


=== personal v. relative pronoun ===
== Verb ==
* personal pronoun
* verbs are the center of a sentence and express action
** = ''I, me, you, he/she/it, him/her, we/us, they/them''
* but verbs can also act as descriptors, or modifiers, to add information to a sentence
** personal pronouns act as a subject or object of a sentence or preposition:
** ex.: "On my way to to the store, I saw my friend" v. "Going to the store, I saw my friend"
*** subjective case: ''I, you, he/she/it, we, they''
*** both express the same idea using different grammatical forms
*** objective case: ''me, you, him/her/it, us, them''
=== multiple verbs===
**** note that the noun in a preposition is an object, so it uses the objective case
* one or more verbs an act upon one subject
***** ex.  "''the girl next to me''", "t''he desk between you and me''"
* if so, they must maintain “parallel” tense (past, present or future)
* relative pronoun
* ex.:
** = a pronoun that creates a conjunction between an independent and a dependent or relative clause
** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.”
** include: ''that, when, where, which, who, whom, whose''
=== subject-verb agreement ===
*** "who" relative pronouns have subjective, objective and possessive cases
[[File:The radiation that occurs.jpg|thumb|The finite verb "is" is the verb of the main, or independent, clause.  The S-V of the clause is "radiation is". The S-V of the relative clause  is "that occurs".  The relative clause come between the S and V of the main clause. (Sentence adapted from Digital PSAT practice test 1.)]]
**** subjective: ''who''
* for SAT Writing, maintain subject-verb agreement
**** objective ''whom''
** i.e. singular subject = singular verb form
**** possessive: ''whose''
* identify the correct noun as subject, as test will try to confuse subject nouns from relative nouns
==== personal and relative pronouns and prepositional phrases ====
* note that finite verbs have a subject but non-finite verbs do not
* ex., "''of which''", "''of whom''" v. "''of them''"
* "is" and "are" are finite verbs
** the preposition "of" creates a relationship
** match them to their subject in order to identify correct S-V conjugation ("it is" v. "they are")
** the personal pronoun "them" is the object of a preposition:
=== transitive v. intransitive verbs ===
*** ''The players took off their jerseys, and only two '''of them''' were dirty''
* transitive verbs require an object:
*** ''Most of the jerseys used by the players were clean, but two '''of them''' were dirty''
** ex. “She offers” must be followed by an object (“she offers help”
**** "two" = the subject
* transitive verbs often include an indirect object:  
**** "of them" = prepositional phrase, with "them" the object of the preposition
** ex. “She offers help” may include an indirect object (“she offers them help
***** "them" refers to "jerseys"
* intransitive verbs require a preposition or adverb:
** the relative pronouns, "that", which" or "who" create a relative clause and acts as the subject of that clause:
** ex. w/ preposition: “She arrived” requires a preposition: “She arrived at the house” (note how “She arrived house” is incorrect, thus requiring a preposition)
*** "''The players took off their jerseys, '''which''' were almost all perfectly clean''"
** ex. w/ adverb: “She arrived at the house late” (late = adverb bc it modifies the verb “arrive” – how did she arrive? she arrived late.)
**** "which" = the subject of the relative clause
=== infinitives ===  
**** "which" refers to "jerseys"
* = the "to" form of a verb
*** "''The game was one by five players, of whom we are most proud''
** in Romance languages, would be the unconjugated root verb ("jugar" means "to play"; "yo juego" means "I play")
**** "we" = subject of the relative clause
* infinitives are NOT the action verb a sentence
**** "of whom" = prepositional phrase (adverbial as it modifies "are")
* instead, infinitives are used to express or describe the state or purpose of something or to give an opinion about it
**** "whom" refers to "the players"
** infinitives answer ''who, what, or why''
** when assessing infinitives, as yourself what the verb is doing and how does the infinitive relate to it or the other words
*** i.e., "I studied hard in order to pass the test."
** i.e, infinitives act like adjectives, adverbs or nouns
* as adjectives, infinitives describe a noun
** ex. "I wanted her tears to disappear"
*** "tears" = direct object; "to disappear" modifies not the verb "want" but the noun "tears," so "to disappear" is acting as an adjective
* as adverbs, infinitives describe a verb
** "One must study to learn" (or could be, ""To learn, one must study")
*** "to learn" is an adverb modifying the verb "study"  
* as nouns, infinitives act as a thing or condition
** as nouns, infinitives can be either the subject or object of a clause or phrase
** ex. "To err is human; to forgive is divine"
*** the subject of these clauses are both infinitives, the verbs are "is", and the objects/subject complements are the noun "human" and the adjective "divine"
** ex. "I want to do something"
*** here the infinitive "to do" is the direct object and "something" is the indirect object
**** i.e., what do I want? "to do"; what do I want to do? "something"
** ex. "My dog loves to chase his ball."
*** what does my dog love? "to chase" (direct object); what does he love chasing? "his ball" (indirect object)
* sources:
** https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html
** https://www.theclassroom.com/identify-function-infinitive-sentence-2604.html
** https://www.dailywritingtips.com/grammar-review-1-particles-and-phrasal-verbs/


=== possessive personal pronoun ===
== Punctuation ==
* personal pronouns have a distinct form to indicate possession
* the purpose of punctuation is to mimic on paper verbal, or spoken, language
* see below under "Apostrophe" for distinctions between possessive pronouns and contracts
** ex., periods and commas mark spoken pauses between sentences and sentence parts
** such as ''its'' (possessive pronoun) vs. ''it's'' (contraction of "it is")
*** however, for written language, punctuation provides additional guidance to a reader that does not exist in spoken language
 
*** ex., semicolons are not differentiated from other forms of pause in spoken language
=== pronoun forms chart ===
=== Period ===  
 
* periods mark a full stop between complete sentences
{| class="wikitable"
** see Independent clause (IC) below for what constitutes a complete sentence
|+ Pronoun Forms
* eliminate periods in possible answers when there is not an IC on both sides of the period.
| '''Subjective form''' ||'''Objective form''' ||'''Possessive'''
* the SAT will not ask to distinguish between use of other punctuation that separates independent clauses
'''adjective'''
** such as semicolons and commas (+ conjunction)
| '''Possessive'''
*** periods separate complete sentences from each other as distinct thoughts
'''Predicate adjective'''
**** i.e.,  IC << . >> IC
|'''Reflexive form'''
*** semicolons juxtapose sentences for comparison
|-
**** i.e., IC >> ; << IC
| I
*** commas + conjunction combine sentences and ideas into a single thought, with each IC weighed equally
|| me
**** i.e., IC <=> , + <=> IC
|| mine
=== Semicolon ===  
|| mine
* semicolons juxtapose complete sentences as ICs for comparison or emphasis of a relation
|myself
* eliminate semicolons if there are not ICs on both sides of the semicolon
|-
* an exception is use of the semicolon as a "super comma" (see above)
| you (singular)
** rarely used on the SAT
|| you
=== comma ===
|| your
* commas create a pause
|| yours
* commas have multiple uses, including:
|| yourself
** separate lists (of subjects, verbs or objects)
|-
** combine IC + DC or DC + IC
|he
** with a conjunction, to combine IC's
|him
*** i.e. "IC, and IC"
|his
** act parenthetically (two commas)
|his
* eliminate according to the rules
|himself
 
|-
=== Apostrophe ===
|she
* apostrophes indicate either
|her
** possession ("the dog's toy")
|her
** or a contraction ("it's" = "it is")
|hers
=== Apostrophe for possession ===
|herself
* only nouns can possess nouns
|-
** that is, possessive nouns must be followed by a noun
|it
*** ex. "the dog's bone" ("dog" and "bone" are nouns)
|it
*** with the exception that an adjective may modify the possessed noun
|its
**** as in, "the dog's tasty bone" << "tasty" correctly modifies "bone"
|its
*** otherwise, possessive nouns cannot be followed by punctuation, verbs, adverbs, preposition, etc.  
|itself
<pre>As the carbon dioxide level in Earth’s atmosphere rises, the [10] [worlds’ ocean’s] absorb more carbon dioxide
|-
</pre>
|we
click EXPAND for an example from CB Practice test no. 9 Writing section no., question no. 10:
|us
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
|our
<pre>
|ours
A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE]
|ourselves
B) world’s oceans’
|-
C) world’s oceans
|you (plural)
D) worlds oceans</pre>
|you
Elimination:
|your
<pre>
|yours
x A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE] << eliminate because "ocean's" absorb" = the singular noun "ocean" cannot possess the verb "absorb"; also a possessive noun cannot possess another possessive noun; also
|yourselves
x B) world’s oceans’ << eliminate because "oceans'" absorb" = the plural noun "oceans" cannot possess the verb "absorb"
|-
y C) world’s oceans << the possessive noun "world" correctly possesses the plural noun "oceans"
|they
x D) worlds oceans</pre> << eliminate because the plural noun "worlds" cannot modify the plural noun "oceans" (see "attributive noun" in section above on nouns for rules on how a singular (and not plural) noun can modify another noun)
|them
</div>
|their
click EXPAND for more on apostrophe for possession:
|theirs
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
|themselves
* <pre>'s</pre> = the suffix for a singular noun to indicate possession
|}
** ex. "the dog's toy" = one dog possesses (has) a toy
 
* <pre>s'</pre> = the suffix for a plural noun
== Verb ==
* exceptions occur when a noun ends with an "s", as that creates confusion between the singular "'s" and plural "s'" possessive indicator
* verbs are the center of a sentence and express action
** normally, nouns that end with an "s" are pluralized by added "es" to the end, such as
* but verbs can also act as descriptors, or modifiers, to add information to a sentence
*** walrus (singular)
** ex.: "On my way to to the store, I saw my friend" v. "Going to the store, I saw my friend"
*** walruses (plural
*** both express the same idea using different grammatical forms
** possessive forms are:
=== multiple verbs===
*** "the walrus' tusk" (singular)
* one or more verbs an act upon one subject
*** "the walruses tusk (plural)
* if so, they must maintain “parallel” tense (past, present or future)
* note
* ex.:
** if there are two possessor nouns both possessing the same thing, only the 2nd will use the apostrophe
** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.”
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's team won the game"
=== subject-verb agreement ===
** if there are two possessor nouns possessing different things (such as "their own"), both possessor nouns will use the apostrophe
* for SAT Writing, maintain subject-verb agreement
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's teams both won the game"
** i.e. singular subject = singular verb form
</div>
* identify the correct noun as subject, as test will try to confuse subject nouns from relative nouns
 
=== transitive v. intransitive verbs ===
=== Possessive pronoun ===
* transitive verbs require an object:
* my, your, his, her, its, our, your (plural), their
** ex. “She offers” must be followed by an object (“she offers help”
* note that many other languages have the possessive pronoun
* transitive verbs often include an indirect object:
** however, they lack the apostrophe indicator for nouns, thus instead of using the apostrophe to indicate possession ("the dog's toy") they structure the idea as "of" or "belonging to", as in, "the toy of the dog" or the toy that belongs to the dog"
** ex. “She offers help” may include an indirect object (“she offers them help
 
* intransitive verbs require a preposition or adverb:
=== apostrophes for contraction ===
** ex. w/ preposition: “She arrived” requires a preposition: “She arrived at the house” (note how “She arrived house” is incorrect, thus requiring a preposition)
* contractions are used for "to be" words to join the subject and the verb via the apostrophe, as in:
** ex. w/ adverb: “She arrived at the house late” (late = adverb bc it modifies the verb “arrive” – how did she arrive? she arrived late.)
** "I am" contracted to "I'm" or "we are" = "we're"
=== infinitives ===
** "it is" = "it's" or "they are" = "they're"
* = the "to" form of a verb
* informal use of the contraction occurs with any noun, as in:
** in Romance languages, would be the unconjugated root verb ("jugar" means "to play"; "yo juego" means "I play")
** "the dog is happy" contracted to "the dog's happy"
* infinitives are NOT the action verb a sentence
*** such use is informal and is mimicking the slurring of a noun with "is"
* instead, infinitives are used to express or describe the state or purpose of something or to give an opinion about it
*** note that since the 's causes confusion with the possessive form of the apostrophe, in written English, the subject-verb contraction is avoided
** infinitives answer ''who, what, or why''
** <u>the SAT will not test this use of a contraction</u>
** when assessing infinitives, as yourself what the verb is doing and how does the infinitive relate to it or the other words
 
*** i.e., "I studied hard in order to pass the test."
== Clause ==
** i.e, infinitives act like adjectives, adverbs or nouns
{{:Clause (grammar)}}
* as adjectives, infinitives describe a noun
** ex. "I wanted her tears to disappear"
*** "tears" = direct object; "to disappear" modifies not the verb "want" but the noun "tears," so "to disappear" is acting as an adjective
* as adverbs, infinitives describe a verb
** "One must study to learn" (or could be, ""To learn, one must study")
*** "to learn" is an adverb modifying the verb "study"  
* as nouns, infinitives act as a thing or condition
** as nouns, infinitives can be either the subject or object of a clause or phrase
** ex. "To err is human; to forgive is divine"
*** the subject of these clauses are both infinitives, the verbs are "is", and the objects/subject complements are the noun "human" and the adjective "divine"
** ex. "I want to do something"
*** here the infinitive "to do" is the direct object and "something" is the indirect object
**** i.e., what do I want? "to do"; what do I want to do? "something"
** ex. "My dog loves to chase his ball."
*** what does my dog love? "to chase" (direct object); what does he love chasing? "his ball" (indirect object)
* sources:
** https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html
** https://www.theclassroom.com/identify-function-infinitive-sentence-2604.html
** https://www.dailywritingtips.com/grammar-review-1-particles-and-phrasal-verbs/


== Punctuation ==
== Phrase ==
* the purpose of punctuation is to mimic on paper verbal, or spoken, language
* = two or more words that are part of a sentence but does not contain both a subject and a verb
** ex., periods and commas mark spoken pauses between sentences and sentence parts  
* phrases are used to add information to a sentence or modify one of its parts
*** however, for written language, punctuation provides additional guidance to a reader that does not exist in spoken language
** "In the afternoon..." = a prepositional phrase
*** ex., semicolons are not differentiated from other forms of pause in spoken language
* types of phrases:
=== Period ===  
=== gerund phrases ===
* periods mark a full stop between complete sentences
* gerunds
** see Independent clause (IC) below for what constitutes a complete sentence
** = -ing forms of verbs that act as a noun
* eliminate periods in possible answers when there is not an IC on both sides of the period.
*** "Smoking is bad for you" << "smoking" = gerund (a noun created by the present participle, "smoking")
* the SAT will not ask to distinguish between use of other punctuation that separates independent clauses
* gerund phrases are gerunds + additional words that create a phrase
** such as semicolons and commas (+ conjunction)
** usually the gerund phrase is the subject of a sentence:
*** periods separate complete sentences from each other as distinct thoughts
*** "''Getting up early'' makes for a productive day."
**** i.e.,  IC << . >> IC
*** "getting up early" is the subject (gerund phrase + adverb "early") of the verb "makes"
*** semicolons juxtapose sentences for comparison
* for more on gerunds see [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Parts_of_speech#participles_and_gerunds Parts of speech: participles and gerunds (School4Schools wiki]] or [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#noun_phrase Phrases: noun phrase (School4Schools wiki]]
**** i.e., IC >> ; << IC
* SAT Writing test generally does not test for gerunds, although they will appear in the text
*** commas + conjunction combine sentences and ideas into a single thought, with each IC weighed equally
 
**** i.e., IC <=> , + <=> IC
=== participle or participial phrase ===
=== Semicolon ===
* = verb phrases that act as an adjective
* semicolons juxtapose complete sentences as ICs for comparison or emphasis of a relation
* participle = a verb that functions as an adjective, usually in the past tense or -ing form
* eliminate semicolons if there are not ICs on both sides of the semicolon
** "participle" = a verb or verb phrase, but used here to describe a phrase that starts with a "participle" (verb) but that sets up a phrase to act as a noun or adjective
* an exception is use of the semicolon as a "super comma" (see above)
* as an adjective:
** rarely used on the SAT
** ex.: "Songs sung softly are soothing"
=== comma ===
*** "to sing" is a verb, but the past participle, "sung" becomes an adjective here
* commas create a pause
*** the participial phrase is "songs sung softly" which is the subject of the verb "are"
* commas have multiple uses, including:
* note: participial phrases are often the source of "'''dangling modifiers'''", which are adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they are modifying
** separate lists (of subjects, verbs or objects)
** ex.: "Smiling grandly, she won the choral competition"
** combine IC + DC or DC + IC
*** = unclear if she won the competition ''because'' she was "smiling grandly" or if she was "smiling grandly" ''when'' she won the tournament
** with a conjunction, to combine IC's
* for the SAT Writing test, note that the gerund or past particle adjective in participial phrases are NEVER the subject of the sentence!
*** i.e. "IC, and IC"
** ex.: "The extra players ''practicing'' all season as a backup have never had a chance to play"
** act parenthetically (two commas)
** Here the participial phrase "practicing all season" and the prepositional phrase, "as a backup" modify the subject "players"
* eliminate according to the rules
*** therefore we match the plural "players" with the plural present perfect verb "have never had" (as opposed to the singular "has never had")
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7, on identifying the subject of a sentence for matching with the verb:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
From [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-6.pdf College Board practice test 6, Writing question no. 21 (test page 24)]
** see CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7
<pre>The experiment confirmed their suspicions when the half of the lake containing the phosphates [7] was teeming with blue-green algae. </pre>
A) was teeming
B) were teeming
C) are teeming
D) teems


=== Apostrophe ===
* we see that the subordinate clause starting with "when" is what the question is about
* apostrophes indicate either
** therefore we can ignore the main clause, "The experiment confirmed their suspicions"
** possession ("the dog's toy")
* identify the preposition "of" and the prepositional phrase it creates, "of the lake"
** or a contraction ("it's" = "it is")
** nouns in prepositional phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
=== Apostrophe for possession ===
* identify the participle "containing" and the participial phrase it creates, "containing the phosphates"
* only nouns can possess nouns
** nouns in participial phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
** that is, possessive nouns must be followed by a noun
* therefore our subject is "the half"  
*** ex. "the dog's bone" ("dog" and "bone" are nouns)
** which thereby matches to the singular, past tense A) was teeming
*** with the exception that an adjective may modify the possessed noun
**** as in, "the dog's tasty bone" << "tasty" correctly modifies "bone"
*** otherwise, possessive nouns cannot be followed by punctuation, verbs, adverbs, preposition, etc.
<pre>As the carbon dioxide level in Earth’s atmosphere rises, the [10] [worlds’ ocean’s] absorb more carbon dioxide
</pre>
click EXPAND for an example from CB Practice test no. 9 Writing section no., question no. 10:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>
A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE]
B) world’s oceans’
C) world’s oceans
D) worlds oceans</pre>
Elimination:
<pre>
x A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE] << eliminate because "ocean's" absorb" = the singular noun "ocean" cannot possess the verb "absorb"; also a possessive noun cannot possess another possessive noun; also
x B) world’s oceans’ << eliminate because "oceans'" absorb" = the plural noun "oceans" cannot possess the verb "absorb"
y C) world’s oceans << the possessive noun "world" correctly possesses the plural noun "oceans"
x D) worlds oceans</pre> << eliminate because the plural noun "worlds" cannot modify the plural noun "oceans" (see "attributive noun" in section above on nouns for rules on how a singular (and not plural) noun can modify another noun)
</div>
click EXPAND for more on apostrophe for possession:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* <pre>'s</pre> = the suffix for a singular noun to indicate possession
** ex. "the dog's toy" = one dog possesses (has) a toy
* <pre>s'</pre> = the suffix for a plural noun
* exceptions occur when a noun ends with an "s", as that creates confusion between the singular "'s" and plural "s'" possessive indicator
** normally, nouns that end with an "s" are pluralized by added "es" to the end, such as
*** walrus (singular)
*** walruses (plural
** possessive forms are:
*** "the walrus' tusk" (singular)
*** "the walruses tusk (plural)
* note
** if there are two possessor nouns both possessing the same thing, only the 2nd will use the apostrophe
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's team won the game"
** if there are two possessor nouns possessing different things (such as "their own"), both possessor nouns will use the apostrophe
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's teams both won the game"
</div>
</div>


=== Possessive pronoun ===
* appositive phrases at end of a sentence:
* my, your, his, her, its, our, your (plural), their
** SAT test often measures concision in sentences using appositive phrases instead of clauses:
* note that many other languages have the possessive pronoun
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
** however, they lack the apostrophe indicator for nouns, thus instead of using the apostrophe to indicate possession ("the dog's toy") they structure the idea as "of" or "belonging to", as in, "the toy of the dog" or the toy that belongs to the dog"
** note how some appositive phrases can also be written as a relative clause:
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, '''who was''' a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
* for appositive phrase on the SAT see Test 6, Writing question no. 1:
 
In the winter of 1968, scientists David Schindler and
Gregg Brunskill poured nitrates and phosphates into
Lake [227, this is one] of the 58 freshwater bodies that
compose Canada’s remotely located Experimental Lakes
Area.
A) NO CHANGE B) 227. Which is one C) 227. One D) 227, one


=== apostrophes for contraction ===
* We can eliminate
* contractions are used for "to be" words to join the subject and the verb via the apostrophe, as in:
** A) because it creates two independent clauses that require a missing coordinating conjunction
** "I am" contracted to "I'm" or "we are" = "we're"
*** should read: ''"... into Lake 227, '''and''' this is one of..."''
** "it is" = "it's" or "they are" = "they're"
** B) because the period before the relative clause "Which" creates an incomplete sentence
* informal use of the contraction occurs with any noun, as in:
** C) because the sentence created by the period, ''". One of the..."''  lacks a verb and is therefore an incomplete thought
** "the dog is happy" contracted to "the dog's happy"
*** the subject "One" does not have a verb
*** such use is informal and is mimicking the slurring of a noun with "is"  
*** and the relative clause ''"that compose Canada's..."'' is an incomplete thought, as well
*** note that since the 's causes confusion with the possessive form of the apostrophe, in written English, the subject-verb contraction is avoided
* only D) is grammatically correct because it creates an appositive modifying phrase following "Lake 227"
** <u>the SAT will not test this use of a contraction</u>
** note that this phrase could be a relative clause similar to B) but with a comma instead of a period


== Clause ==
* see:
{{:Clause (grammar)}}
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/dangling_modifiers_and_how_to_correct_them.htm dangling modifiers (owl.purdue.edu)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/participles.html participles(owl.purdue.edu)]


== Phrase ==
=== prepositional phrase ===
* = two or more words that are part of a sentence but does not contain both a subject and a verb
* built around a preposition, which indicates time, place, or other relationship to the main clause or a noun
* phrases are used to add information to a sentence or modify one of its parts
** prepositions are followed by a noun (and not a verb), which forms a "prepositional phrase"
** "In the afternoon..." = a prepositional phrase
** prepositions tell us more about the nouns, esp. the subject or object of a sentence
* types of phrases:
*** they may follow a verb, but they do not directly precede a verb, as in:
=== gerund phrases ===
*** incorrect: "The teacher about tells" or "The odor from stinks" makes no sense
* gerunds
*** correct: "The teacher tells us about math" or "The odor from the garbage stinks"
** = -ing forms of verbs that act as a noun
* prepositions include:
*** "Smoking is bad for you" << "smoking" = gerund (a noun created by the present participle, "smoking")
** ''at, by, for, from, in, of, on, since, to'' (when suggesting a direction)'', with''
* gerund phrases are gerunds + additional words that create a phrase
** other prepositions include, ''above, about, after, along, around, before, behind, below, beside, between, down, during, into, near, over, through, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, without''  
** usually the gerund phrase is the subject of a sentence:
** see [https://englishpost.org/grammar-lessons-list-of-common-prepositions/ List of Common Prepositions (englishpost.org)]
*** "''Getting up early'' makes for a productive day."
* prepositional phrases may be separated from the main clause by a comma or not
*** "getting up early" is the subject (gerund phrase + adverb "early") of the verb "makes"
click EXPAND for examples of prepositions and prepositional phrases with or without commas:
* for more on gerunds see [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Parts_of_speech#participles_and_gerunds Parts of speech: participles and gerunds (School4Schools wiki]] or [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#noun_phrase Phrases: noun phrase (School4Schools wiki]]
* SAT Writing test generally does not test for gerunds, although they will appear in the text
 
=== participle or participial phrase ===
* = verb phrases that act as an adjective
* participle = a verb that functions as an adjective, usually in the past tense or -ing form
** "participle" = a verb or verb phrase, but used here to describe a phrase that starts with a "participle" (verb) but that sets up a phrase to act as a noun or adjective
* as an adjective:
** ex.: "Songs sung softly are soothing"
*** "to sing" is a verb, but the past participle, "sung" becomes an adjective here
*** the participial phrase is "songs sung softly" which is the subject of the verb "are"
* note: participial phrases are often the source of "'''dangling modifiers'''", which are adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they are modifying
** ex.: "Smiling grandly, she won the choral competition"
*** = unclear if she won the competition ''because'' she was "smiling grandly" or if she was "smiling grandly" ''when'' she won the tournament
* for the SAT Writing test, note that the gerund or past particle adjective in participial phrases are NEVER the subject of the sentence!
** ex.: "The extra players ''practicing'' all season as a backup have never had a chance to play"
** Here the participial phrase "practicing all season" and the prepositional phrase, "as a backup" modify the subject "players"
*** therefore we match the plural "players" with the plural present perfect verb "have never had" (as opposed to the singular "has never had")
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7, on identifying the subject of a sentence for matching with the verb:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
From [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-6.pdf College Board practice test 6, Writing question no. 21 (test page 24)]
* without a comma = required (or essential or restrictive) phrase in order for the sentence to make sense, usually following a verb or providing an essential idea for a noun:
** see CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7
** "I went ''to the store''"
<pre>The experiment confirmed their suspicions when the half of the lake containing the phosphates [7] was teeming with blue-green algae. </pre>
** "Get the ornaments ''from the attic''"
A) was teeming
** "My papers ''in the notebook'' are a mess"
B) were teeming
* with a comma = non-required (or non-essential or non-restrictive) phrase that is not needed in order for the sentence to make sense, ex.:  
C) are teeming
** ''During the blackout'', I got tons of work done"
D) teems
** "''After eating lunch'', I'm taking a nap"
 
* we see that the subordinate clause starting with "when" is what the question is about
** therefore we can ignore the main clause, "The experiment confirmed their suspicions"
* identify the preposition "of" and the prepositional phrase it creates, "of the lake"
** nouns in prepositional phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
* identify the participle "containing" and the participial phrase it creates, "containing the phosphates"
** nouns in participial phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
* therefore our subject is "the half"
** which thereby matches to the singular, past tense A) was teeming
</div>
 
* appositive phrases at end of a sentence:
** SAT test often measures concision in sentences using appositive phrases instead of clauses:
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
** note how some appositive phrases can also be written as a relative clause:
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, '''who was''' a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
* for appositive phrase on the SAT see Test 6, Writing question no. 1:
 
In the winter of 1968, scientists David Schindler and
Gregg Brunskill poured nitrates and phosphates into
Lake [227, this is one] of the 58 freshwater bodies that
compose Canada’s remotely located Experimental Lakes
Area.
A) NO CHANGE B) 227. Which is one C) 227. One D) 227, one
 
* We can eliminate
** A) because it creates two independent clauses that require a missing coordinating conjunction
*** should read: ''"... into Lake 227, '''and''' this is one of..."''
** B) because the period before the relative clause "Which" creates an incomplete sentence
** C) because the sentence created by the period, ''". One of the..."''  lacks a verb and is therefore an incomplete thought
*** the subject "One" does not have a verb
*** and the relative clause ''"that compose Canada's..."'' is an incomplete thought, as well
* only D) is grammatically correct because it creates an appositive modifying phrase following "Lake 227"
** note that this phrase could be a relative clause similar to B) but with a comma instead of a period
 
* see:
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/dangling_modifiers_and_how_to_correct_them.htm dangling modifiers (owl.purdue.edu)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/participles.html participles(owl.purdue.edu)]
 
=== prepositional phrase ===
* built around a preposition, which indicates time, place, or other relationship to the main clause or a noun
** prepositions are followed by a noun (and not a verb), which forms a "prepositional phrase"
** prepositions tell us more about the nouns, esp. the subject or object of a sentence
*** they may follow a verb, but they do not directly precede a verb, as in:
*** incorrect: "The teacher about tells" or "The odor from stinks" makes no sense
*** correct: "The teacher tells us about math" or "The odor from the garbage stinks"
* prepositions include:
** ''at, by, for, from, in, of, on, since, to'' (when suggesting a direction)'', with''
** other prepositions include, ''above, about, after, along, around, before, behind, below, beside, between, down, during, into, near, over, through, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, without''
** see [https://englishpost.org/grammar-lessons-list-of-common-prepositions/ List of Common Prepositions (englishpost.org)]
* prepositional phrases may be separated from the main clause by a comma or not
click EXPAND for examples of prepositions and prepositional phrases with or without commas:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* without a comma = required (or essential or restrictive) phrase in order for the sentence to make sense, usually following a verb or providing an essential idea for a noun:
** "I went ''to the store''"
** "Get the ornaments ''from the attic''"
** "My papers ''in the notebook'' are a mess"
* with a comma = non-required (or non-essential or non-restrictive) phrase that is not needed in order for the sentence to make sense, ex.:  
** ''During the blackout'', I got tons of work done"
** "''After eating lunch'', I'm taking a nap"
</div>
* for SAT Writing identify prepositions in order to:
** to distinguish the subject of a sentence from other words that might be confused with the subject in wrong possible answers
*** see example below from CB Test 6 question no. 7 in the section on participial phrases
** to get rid of unimportant information in order to better read the sentence and answer the question
click EXPAND for an example of ignoring prepositional phrases from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf Practice Test 9 Writing question 5]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Seawater seeping into fissures in the ocean floor is heated by underlying magma, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals from the water.</pre>
* we can identify the core of the sentence by ignoring the prepositions:
** Seawater <s>''seeping into fissures in the ocean floor''</s> is heated <s>''by underlying magma''</s>, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals <s>''from the water</s>.'' which leaves us with:
<pre> Seawater is heated, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals</pre>
** which allows us to eliminate possible answers more readily:
<pre>
x A) [and remove] NO CHANGE << "oxygen, sulfates and other chemicals" are the objects (in a list) of the subject-verb "heat drives" so each object should be listed in the same form (parallel structure)
x B) it also removes << same as A)
x C) also removing << same as A)
y D) and << creates an appropriate list of objects to the subject verb "heat drives"
</pre>
</div>
* SAT test frequently tests for subject-verb case agreement and includes a prepositional phrase that matches to a wrong answer
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-7.pdf Practice Test 7 Writing question no. 19]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.
</pre>
* possible answers here test if the student can identify the subject of the sentence which may be obscured (hidden) by or confused with a prepositional phrase
<pre>
A) [includes] NO CHANGE
B) include
C) including
D) has included
</pre>
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
* removing the preposition "of" clarifies the subject:
** The most common forms <s>''of professional development provided to employees''</s> leaves us with
<pre>The most common forms [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
* which clarifies the correct conjugation of the subject-verb:
** = ''forms include''
*** = third person plural, so "I include, you include, he/she/it '''includes''', we include, they '''include'''"
*** thus the correct answer B) include
</div>
</div>
* for SAT Writing identify prepositions in order to:
** to distinguish the subject of a sentence from other words that might be confused with the subject in wrong possible answers
*** see example below from CB Test 6 question no. 7 in the section on participial phrases
** to get rid of unimportant information in order to better read the sentence and answer the question
click EXPAND for an example of ignoring prepositional phrases from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf Practice Test 9 Writing question 5]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Seawater seeping into fissures in the ocean floor is heated by underlying magma, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals from the water.</pre>
* we can identify the core of the sentence by ignoring the prepositions:
** Seawater <s>''seeping into fissures in the ocean floor''</s> is heated <s>''by underlying magma''</s>, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals <s>''from the water</s>.'' which leaves us with:
<pre> Seawater is heated, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals</pre>
** which allows us to eliminate possible answers more readily:
<pre>
x A) [and remove] NO CHANGE << "oxygen, sulfates and other chemicals" are the objects (in a list) of the subject-verb "heat drives" so each object should be listed in the same form (parallel structure)
x B) it also removes << same as A)
x C) also removing << same as A)
y D) and << creates an appropriate list of objects to the subject verb "heat drives"
</pre>
</div>
* SAT test frequently tests for subject-verb case agreement and includes a prepositional phrase that matches to a wrong answer
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-7.pdf Practice Test 7 Writing question no. 19]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.
</pre>
* possible answers here test if the student can identify the subject of the sentence which may be obscured (hidden) by or confused with a prepositional phrase
<pre>
A) [includes] NO CHANGE
B) include
C) including
D) has included
</pre>
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
* removing the preposition "of" clarifies the subject:
** The most common forms <s>''of professional development provided to employees''</s> leaves us with
<pre>The most common forms [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
* which clarifies the correct conjugation of the subject-verb:
** = ''forms include''
*** = third person plural, so "I include, you include, he/she/it '''includes''', we include, they '''include'''"
*** thus the correct answer B) include
</div>
=== verb phrase ===
* = an additional verb that helps to modify or clarify another verb
* think of "verb phrases" as a combination of verbs that act as a single verb
** verb phrases are combinations of verbs to make a single verb phrase or [[predicate]] (a verb or words that together act as a verb)
* sometimes also called "helping verb" = verbs that "help" other verbs
** ex.: "She could have broken the vase."
*** "could have" = "helping verbs" that define the verb "broken"
*** "helping verbs' include:
{|  class="wikitable"
Helping verb !! example 
|-
| be, am, is are, was|| am eating
|-
| were, been, being have, has, had|| have eaten
|-
| must, shall, can, will,. do, did, does, having|| can sing
|-
|}
** note that these "helping verbs" are different from conjugations such as "had sung" or "will sing"
== Sentence placement ==
* paragraph and sentence order will follow either
** logical argument, or
** chronological sequence
* identify transition words that would require certain information to precede or follow the sentence
* identify prepositions / phrases for time or place sequence (“now” “after” etc.)
* identify determiners, and place the sentence according to
** a = the first time an idea or word/name has been mentioned
** the = previously stated
*** ex.: “this guy” means that whoever “this guy” is was already stated, whereas “a guy” would be introducing the “guy” for the first time, which should inform sentence placement
* identify pronouns in order to place correct sentence sequence:
** ex: “Scientists understood that this process illuminates…” – “this process” suggests that correct sentence placement will follow an initial discussion of the process


=== verb phrase ===
to fix:  Writing section sentence placement
* = an additional verb that helps to modify or clarify another verb
Clues:  
* think of "verb phrases" as a combination of verbs that act as a single verb
** verb phrases are combinations of verbs to make a single verb phrase or [[predicate]] (a verb or words that together act as a verb)
* sometimes also called "helping verb" = verbs that "help" other verbs
** ex.: "She could have broken the vase."
*** "could have" = "helping verbs" that define the verb "broken"
*** "helping verbs' include:
{|  class="wikitable"
Helping verb !! example 
|-
| be, am, is are, was|| am eating
|-
| were, been, being have, has, had|| have eaten
|-
| must, shall, can, will,. do, did, does, having|| can sing
|-
|}
** note that these "helping verbs" are different from conjugations such as "had sung" or "will sing"
 
== Sentence placement ==
* paragraph and sentence order will follow either
** logical argument, or
** chronological sequence
* identify transition words that would require certain information to precede or follow the sentence
* identify prepositions / phrases for time or place sequence (“now” “after” etc.)
* identify determiners, and place the sentence according to
** a = the first time an idea or word/name has been mentioned
** the = previously stated
*** ex.: “this guy” means that whoever “this guy” is was already stated, whereas “a guy” would be introducing the “guy” for the first time, which should inform sentence placement
* identify pronouns in order to place correct sentence sequence:
** ex: “Scientists understood that this process illuminates…” – “this process” suggests that correct sentence placement will follow an initial discussion of the process
 
to fix:  Writing section sentence placement
Clues:  
1. pronouns
1. pronouns
2. other transition words
2. other transition words
Line 1,493: Line 1,268:
** idiomatic is different from "informal" or colloquial (local, common) language
** idiomatic is different from "informal" or colloquial (local, common) language
* By definition idiomatic words have no set rule
* By definition idiomatic words have no set rule
** idioms include colloquial (informal) expressions, prepositions, or vocabulary.
** prepositions can be "idiomatic" in that there may not be a logic or rule in the difference between some of them, but we tend to use one over the other, even it is synonymous
* HOWEVER, on the SAT Writing section, students can use elimination techniques to eliminate down to the correct idiomatic expression
* HOWEVER, on the SAT Writing section, students can use elimination techniques to eliminate down to the correct idiomatic expression
*
* see this video for demonstration of [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV7QK_ex0jQ&list=PLyC6Fj2OdXlpDypu0__dsv5y6EZS5NpmH&index=1&t=4s on elimination techniques with idiomatic & vocabulary questions (by Michael Bromley)]]
* see this video for demonstration of [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV7QK_ex0jQ&list=PLyC6Fj2OdXlpDypu0__dsv5y6EZS5NpmH&index=1&t=4s on elimination techniques with idiomatic & vocabulary questions (by Michael Bromley)]]
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 21, on how to eliminate idiomatic possible answers using grammar rules:
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 21, on how to eliminate idiomatic possible answers using grammar rules:
Line 1,633: Line 1,411:
** then decide between "yes" or "no"
** then decide between "yes" or "no"


== Vocabulary ==
== Vocabulary questions ==


* Writing section vocabulary questions are never antonyms  
* Writing section vocabulary questions are never antonyms  
Line 1,654: Line 1,432:
*** any adverbs?  
*** any adverbs?  
** is it part of the main clause or a subordinate clause?  
** is it part of the main clause or a subordinate clause?  
== Useful vocabulary words for SAT Writing section ==
* '''mere / merely'''
** = "only" as in "barely any but some or a few"
*** can be negative, as in "''What, that's merely a two bucks!''"
**** also, "hardly"
*** or positive, as in
**** "''Merely two bucks is all it took!''"
**** or "''I got in done in mere seconds''"
** the SAT frequently measures student comprehension of this word 
*** note that "merely" is different from "a little," "a few" or "few" 
* '''nevertheless'''
** = "yes, but..."
* '''nominal'''
** = "insignificant", "barely or hardly any", "just a few"
* see also
** similar entry for the SAT Reading section : Useful vocabulary words for SAT Reading section
** [[Transition words translations]]


== Grammar and punctuation rules ==
== Grammar and punctuation rules ==
Line 1,662: Line 1,459:
* avoid repetition and unnecessary pronouns
* avoid repetition and unnecessary pronouns
* avoid [[#Emphasis shift]] errors
* avoid [[#Emphasis shift]] errors
[[Category:SAT verbal]]
[[Category:SAT exam prep]]
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:SAT Writing]]
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