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'''SAT Writing Section Techniques, Strategies & Approaches'''
'''SAT Writing Section Techniques, Strategies & Approaches'''


[[Category:SAT verbal]]
{{New SAT test disclaimer}}
[[Category:SAT exam prep]]
 
* see also:
** [[SAT Reading section techniques, strategies & approaches]]
** [[SAT Reading section historical timeline & themes]]
** [[Grammar]]
** [[Parts of speech]]
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]]


See also:
* [[Transition_words_translations|Writing Section transition words translations]]
* [[SAT Reading section techniques, strategies & approaches]]
* [[SAT Reading section historical timeline & themes]]
* [[Grammar]]
* [[Parts of speech]]
* [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]]


* Note on abbreviations
* Note on abbreviations
** IC = "independent clause"
** IC = "independent [[Vocabulary:Clause|clause]]"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** DC = "dependent clause"
** Phr = "[[Vocabulary:Phrase|phrase]]"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SV = "subject + verb"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
** SVO = "subject + verb + object"
** CC = coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
** SJ = subordinating conjunction
** CB = College Board
** CB = College Board
*** all practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/practice/full-length-practice-tests College Board Official Practice Test Suite]]
*** all practice tests referenced or excerpted here are from the [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/practice/full-length-practice-tests College Board Official Practice Test Suite]]
[[category:SAT Verbal]]
[[category:SAT Prep]]
[[category:Grammar]]


== Writing section overview ==
== Writing section overview ==
* SAT Writing Section Test Directions
* SAT Writing Section Test Directions
** students are to answer questions based upon:
** the test instructs students to answer questions based upon:
*** revising text for effective expression of ideas
***''"expression of ideas"'' and ''"correct errors in sentence structure, usage, or punctuation"''
*** correcting grammatical errors, such as sentence structure, usage, or punctuation
**** clear, concise and precise language
*** interpret graphs and apply to text corrections
**** direct voice
** some questions will refer to an underlined portion of a passage
**** word & [[syntax]] choices that focus on the main point and most effectively convey that idea
** some questions will ask you to consider a portion of a passage or the passage as a whole
***** i.e., not wordy, not redundant, not passive voice, no unclear pronoun references
** the correct answer “most effectively improves the quality of writing”
****** unclear pronoun reference = a pronoun, such as "they" that doesn't have a clear match, or reference, to a previously stated noun or idea
** correct answers conform to “conventions of standard English”
*** ''interpret graphs and apply to text corrections''
**** graphs in the Writing section are often purely textual (i.e, the information is in the graph and does not require inference)
**** passage text & author choices are to align with information in the graph
** other directions include:
*** questions will relate to underlined portions or a numbered sentence or paragraph
**** = sentence or paragraph placement
*** the correct answer “''most effectively improves the quality of writing''”
**** = clarity, concision, and direct voice
*** correct answers conform to “''conventions of standard English''”
**** = grammar and punctuation
**** = rules-based elimination
*SAT Writing Test Structure
*SAT Writing Test Structure
** students have 35 min. to answer 44 questions
** students have 35 min. to answer 44 questions
** test has four readings passages with 11 questions each
** test has four readings passages with 11 questions each
*** = average of 8:45 min per passage
*** = average of 8:45 min per passage
== Quick start Writing Section strategies & approaches ==
* '''Writing section is RULES based''': eliminate using logic and grammar/punctuation/ syntax rules
** see [[SAT Writing section grammar rules chart]] for quick start review of Writing section Rules & eliminations
* '''PAY ATTENTION TO PASSAGE TITLES'''
** these will help answer "passage" and "conclusion" questions
* '''the word "being" as a possible answer is 100% of the time wrong'''
* '''the shortest answer is usually correct (80/20% rule)'''
** IF the question is about redundancy, wordiness, or emphasis shift (passive v. direct voice, excessive sentence breaks/parenthetical parts)
*** then the shortest answer is most likely correct
*** but make sure it is grammatically correct
** often the shortest answer is the wrong answer in '''comparison questions'''
* '''if two possible answers are synonymous, they both are wrong'''
** be careful w/ this one, but if they clearly do the same thing, <u>eliminate</u> both!
** but it helps to eliminate such things as
** examples
*** synonymous transition words, such as "however" and "but" or "therefore" and "consequently"
*** punctuation that does the same thing, such as a period and a semicolon, or a dash and a colon
**** make sure they are doing the same thing and if so eliminate (they don't always do the same thing)
* '''identify core subject - verb - object''' and see how the sentence builds from them
* '''nouns in prepositional phrases are NEVER the subject of a sentence'''
** i.e, "Books about sailing is/ are fun"
*** "about sailing" is a preposition phrase, so the subject-verb matching is "books" and the plural "are"
* '''identifying prepositional phrases is helpful on this test!'''
* '''the word "that" does a number of things''', but when it introduces "necessary" or "requisite" information, it should not be separated by a comma or other punctuation
** ex.: "The satellite ran out of fuel that it depended on to stay in orbit"
*** = no punctuation or pauses because all the information is required for the sentence to make sense
* '''affect/ effect'''
** effect = noun
** affect = verb
* '''expand contractions to eliminate'''
** i.e. read "it's" as "it is" and "they're" as "they are"
* '''possessives:'''
** nouns can only possess nouns, so if a noun possesses a verb or a preposition, it is wrong
** note that some possible answers w/ possessives nouns are actually indirect and direct objects
*** i.e., "She gave her brother's presents" = she gave away the presents that belonged to her brother, as opposed to
**** "She gave her brother presents" = she gave presents to her brother
* '''be comfortable w/ what constitutes an independent or dependent clause:'''
** independent clause: a sentence part that has a subject + verb AND stands as a complete thought (i.e. could be a sentence by itself)
** dependent clause (or subordinate clause): a sentence part that has a subject + verb BUT does make a complete thought
** ex., "Since it's raining..." = has subject + verb but is an incomplete thought
== Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules ==
* for quick review of grammar and punctuation basics go to [[SAT Reading and Writing quick start grammar and punctuation guide]]
* for more in-depth review of concepts and rules, see below.


== BIG IDEAS ==
== BIG IDEAS ==
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=== Writing section is rules-based ===
=== Writing section is rules-based ===
* the answers follow set grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions
* answers and eliminations follow set grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions
* therefore, identify the rules as you practice & apply them in your elimination strategies
* therefore, identify the rules as you practice & apply them in your elimination strategies
* see [[SAT Writing section grammar rules chart]] for quick start review of Writing section Rules & eliminations


=== Difficulty level ===  
=== Passage titles ===
* read passage titles!
** titles express author intent
** titles are frequently a thesis statements (no other details are provided)
** titles generally answer the last question on each passage (not always)
*** concluding sentences must align w/ the title
 
=== Difficulty level ===
* difficulty level is based on the passage and not the questions
* difficulty level is based on the passage and not the questions
** there can be difficult questions on easy passages, but the bulk of "hard" questions will coincide with difficult passages
** there can be difficult questions on easy passages, but the bulk of "hard" questions will coincide with difficult passages


=== Elimination & evidence-based test ===  
=== Elimination ===  
* SAT Writing is "evidence-based" = the answer is in the text
* eliminate the "low-hanging fruit" first
* eliminate for errors
** i.e., the easy or most obvious eliminations
* Writing section elimination techniques are discussed below
* always eliminate for errors, don't select for correctness
* use passage titles!


=== Grammar, logic & punctuation ===
=== Grammar, logic & punctuation ===
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** then see how the sentence builds out from there
** then see how the sentence builds out from there
** ex:
** ex:
*** ''Jamal plays''. (subject + verb)
*** ''Jamal plays chess''. (subject + verb)
*** ''Jamal plays chess''. (adds object)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess''. (adds prepositional phrase for when)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess''. (adds prepositional phrase for when)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends''. (adds prepositional phrases for where and with whom)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends''. (adds prepositional phrases for where and with whom)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library, with his friends, since he can't make it there on Thursdays''. (adds [[subordinating conjunction]] since which creates the subordinate (or dependent) clause to express why)
*** ''On Tuesdays, Jamal plays chess at the library with his friends since he can't make it there on Thursdays''. (adds [[subordinating conjunction]] since which creates the subordinate (or dependent) clause to express why)
* finding the core SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT helps to identify other sentences parts and to avoid confusing or mismatching subject-verb agreement and other mistakes
* finding the core SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT helps to identify other sentences parts and to avoid confusing or mismatching subject-verb agreement and other mistakes


=== Parallelism ===  
=== Parallelism ===  
* the SAT Writing test frequently measures "parallelism"
* the SAT Writing test frequently measures "parallelism"
** or maintaining "parallel" verb tense, subject-verb agreement, and comparatives
** or maintaining "parallel" verb tense, subject-verb agreement, prepositions, and comparatives
* '''parallel verb tense'''
==== parallel verb tense====
** if one verb is in the past, then (usually) the other verbs in the sentence must also maintain "parallel" tense, i.e. also be in the past tense
** if one verb is in the past, then (usually) the other verbs in the sentence must also maintain "parallel" tense, i.e. also be in the past tense
* ex.
* ex.
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* '''the correct answer B) was matches or is "parallel" to the verb "were" from "Children were entertained"'''
* '''the correct answer B) was matches or is "parallel" to the verb "were" from "Children were entertained"'''
</div>
</div>
* '''subject-verb agreement'''
==== parallel subject-verb agreement ====
* subjects and verbs match singular vs. plural forms
* subjects and verbs match singular vs. plural forms
** = a form of "parallel" structure (i.e, matching singular or plural subjects and verbs)
** = a form of "parallel" structure (i.e, matching singular or plural subjects and verbs)
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|}
|}
</div>
</div>
* '''parallel comparatives'''
==== parallel comparatives====
* when making a comparison, we must compare similar, or parallel, things
* when making a comparison, we must compare similar, or parallel, things
** thus the grammar of comparisons must also be parallel
** thus the grammar of comparisons must also be parallel
** the SAT Writing measures student ability to maintain parallel comparisons
** the SAT Writing measures student ability to maintain parallel comparisons
* as a rule,
** when comparing grammatical subjects (as in the subject of a clause),
*** use "than"
** when comparing objects, especially objects of a preposition,
*** use a relative pronoun such as "than that" or "of that"
* ex.:
* ex.:
** "The students who studied hard performed better on the test than those who didn't study"
** comparing subjects:
*** maintains the parallel" "students who studied hard" with "those [students] who didn't study"
*** "The first strategy was more effective than the second one"
** comparing objects: * "The strategy of the first one was more effective than that of the second one"
*other example:
**"The students who studied hard performed better on the test than those who didn't study"
***maintains the parallel" "students who studied hard" with "those [students] who didn't study"
* or
* or
** "Looking at the results, it is clear that the students who did study hard performed better on the test than did students who did not study hard."
** "Looking at the results, it is clear that the students who did study hard performed better on the test than did students who did not study hard."
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D) compared with students
D) compared with students
</pre>
</pre>
* ''' B) "than did students who were not required" parallels to "students who were required"'''  
* ''' B) "than did students who were not required" parallels to "students who did study hard"'''
** note that question 19 correct answer "D) sets up correct reading of question no. 20
** note that question 19 correct answer "D) sets up correct reading of question no. 20
</div>
</div>
==== parallel prepositions ====
* if the object of a prepositional phrase modifies two nouns, it may require two separate, or parallel, prepositions:
* example:
** ''The couple wants love and respect for their marriage"
*** if we remove "and love" we see that the sentence does not make sense:
*** "The couple wants love for their marriage"
** se we can fix it to read:
*** "The couple wants love in and respect for their marriage"


=== Practice ===
=== Practice ===
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* note that A) ''In conclusion'' and B) ''Finally'' are synonymous, since both can't be right, they ar eboth wrong.  
* note that A) ''In conclusion'' and B) ''Finally'' are synonymous, since both can't be right, they ar eboth wrong.  
* the correct answer is B) Finally as it expresses a correct chronology
* the correct answer is B) Finally as it expresses a correct chronology
</div>


</pre>
</div>
=== Timed test ===
=== Timed test ===
* all SAT sections are timed
* all SAT sections are timed
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* click EXPAND for an example
* click EXPAND for an example
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
*** when reading a sentence, such as "John Stevens, a prominent researcher, said, "Look at me!"
*** when reading a sentence such as "John Stevens, a prominent researcher, said, "Look at me!"
*** read it as, "John Stevens, ["comma"] a prominent researcher, ["comma"] said, ["comma"] "["quotation mark"] Look at me!["exclamation point"]"["close quotation mark"]
*** read it as, "John Stevens, ["comma"] a prominent researcher, ["comma"] said, ["comma"] "["quotation mark"] Look at me!["exclamation point"]"["close quotation mark"]
*** this help you to identify important punctuation in sentences that you may otherwise miss
*** this help you to identify important punctuation in sentences that you may otherwise miss
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* rules for usage
* rules for usage
* rules for logic & chronology
* rules for logic & chronology
*
 
== Common errors ==
=== adverbs used to combine independent clauses ===
 
* adverbs and other transition words are not coordinating conjunctions that combine independent clauses
* especially "however," which cannot combine independent clauses
 
=== emphasis shift ===
logical usage
 
=== grammatical usage ===
* misplaced or dangling modifier
 
=== object preposition mistaken for subject ===
 
*''A census by park rangers in Australia in 2015 of kangaroos '''show/shows''' population declines''
* ''A census by park rangers in Australia in 2015 of kangaroos '''show/shows''' population declines''
** ignore the prepositional phrase/s in order to identify the correct subject for the verb "show/shows":
** ''A census <s>by park rangers</s> i<s>n Australia</s> i<s>n 2015</s> <s>of kangaroos</s> '''show/shows''' population declines''
** thus ''A census '''<s>show/</s>shows''' population declines'' << singular "census" matches singular verb "shows"
 
=== parallelism mistakes ===
* comparison mismatch
** comparisons must be parallel
** often introduced by "than" or "more"
** if the comparison is an action, the verb must be included in the comparison
** sometimes the comparison is implied
** examples
*** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than the tests of students who do not''
**** = incorrect because it is comparing "students who study hard" with "the tests of students"
*** correct =
**** ''Students who study hard do better on tests than students who do not''
***** note that "study hard" is implied in the comparison "than students who do not study hard"
* lists mismatch or inconsistency
** lists must be grammatically and logically parallel
** ex.
*** ''The dog chewed on a bone, a toy, and then slept.''
*** the dog may have slept, but it does not belong in the list of things it chewed on
*** correct =
**** ''The dog chewed on a bone and a toy and then slept.''
 
=== punctuation & combining clauses & phrases ===
* comma splice
* run-on sentence
 
=== punctuation between restrictive (necessary) sentence elements ===
 
* "restrictive" sentence elements are not separated from one another by punctuation
* SAT will often add a colon, comma or semicolon between restrictive sentence elements:
* ex.
** ''The doctor explained that: the problem is severe''
*** incorrect colon separating "that" (dependent clause conjunction) from "the problem"
*** here "that" is a conjunction that combines the independent clause "the doctor explained" with the dependent clause "the problem is severe"
 
=== subject-verb mismatch & parallelism ===
* verb tense switch in same sentence
** maintain parallel or logically consistent verb tense
** ex.
*** When the scientists discovered a new species, and they believe if
* subject-verb conjugation mismatch
** always regards third person singular or plural mismatches (it v. they)


== Parts of speech & rules ==
== Parts of speech & rules ==
* identifying parts of speech will yield higher scores
* identifying parts of speech will yield higher scores
* see this article for [[Parts of speech]]
* the Parts of Speech are generally considered:
** 1. adjective 2. adverb; 3. article; 4. conjunction; 5. determiner; 6. interjection; 7 noun;  8 preposition; 9. pronoun; 10. verb
** see this article for more details on [[Parts of speech]] (which includes "particle" as an additional part of speech, thus there are 11 parts of speech)
* below sections will expand on word parts of speech and their associated rules and applications to the SAT Writing test
* below sections will expand on word parts of speech and their associated rules and applications to the SAT Writing test


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D) draped with festive red banners
D) draped with festive red banners
</pre>
</pre>
eliminate A) becuase the adjectives "festive" and "red" cannot be separated from the noun they modify, "banners"
eliminate A) bc the adjectives "festive" and "red" cannot be separated from the noun they modify, "banners"
click EXPAND for additional eliminations and the correct answer:
click EXPAND for additional eliminations and the correct answer:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
=== dangling and misplaced modifiers ===
* see the entry here on [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#modifier_errors:_dangling_modifiers Modifier errors (Grammar)]


== Adverb ==
== Adverb ==
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* other adverbs include, very, much, more, many
* other adverbs include, very, much, more, many
* for the SAT Writing, note that '''however''' is an adverb and not a coordinating conjunction ("fanboys")
* for the SAT Writing, note that '''however''' is an adverb and not a coordinating conjunction ("fanboys")
* see
** "conjunctive adverb" for more on THAMOs (conjunctive adverbs) like "however"
** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules#however]]


== Noun ==
== Noun ==
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** proper nouns are capitalized
** proper nouns are capitalized


=== noun modifying another noun ===
{{Noun as modifier}}
* SAT Writing test questions on attributive nouns:
** they may also appear in the passages
** and they can help the student to isolate word parts and understand what is going on in a sentence, especially to eliminate possessive noun forms
click EXPAND for an example of how identifying attributive noun can help answer [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 14]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>By requiring students to do community service in order to graduate, school [14] [officials’ are taking away students’] choice to give up their time for nonprofit activities, making volunteerism less meaningful and pleasurable.


A) officials’ are taking away students’ [NO CHANGE]
=== noun phrase ===
B) officials are taking away students
* any phrase (sentence part that does not have a subject-verb) that consists of nouns, including:
C) officials are taking away student’s
** appositive noun phrase
D) officials are taking away students'
** attributive noun or "noun adjunct"
</pre>
 
* elimination
=== apposite noun, attributive noun, or noun adjunct (noun as adjective) ===
** x A) the noun "official's" incorrectly possesses the verb "are" (see possessive nouns for more)
* a noun that acts as an adjective to describe another noun next to it
** x B) "students choice" = an incorrect plural form of the attributive noun "student" (student choice = the kind of choice for students)
** = "attributive" "apposite" or "noun adjunct"
* we now have the distinction between C) student's (singular possessive) D) students' (plural possessive)
*** "attributive noun" bc it adds an "attribute" to another noun:
** thus we match the correct D) students' to "By requiring students" from the sentence
**** "dog food" for "food that is for dogs"
</div>
*** "apposite" = "in relation to"
**** thus "apposite noun" = the noun in relation to the other next to it ("brick building")
*** "adjunct" = "supplementary", as in supports or adds to another noun ("internet security")
* attributive nouns can be accompanied by modifier, such as "yummy dog food"


=== appositive: nouns as parenthetical or introductory phrases ===
=== appositive: nouns as parenthetical or introductory phrases ===
* "appositive" is from Latin for "to put near"
* = nouns that explain another noun (or pronouns)
* = nouns that explain another noun (or pronouns)
* = nouns that add or qualify another noun
* = nouns that add to or qualify another noun
** the appositive noun can be with a modifier
* appositives used parenthetically:
* appositives used parenthetically:
** "Steve, my little brother, hates Minecraft."
** "Steve, my little brother, hates Minecraft."
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*** commas set aside appositives / appositive phrases when the information is parenthetical, i.e.  
*** commas set aside appositives / appositive phrases when the information is parenthetical, i.e.  
** the appositive is not necessary for the sentence to make sense
** the appositive is not necessary for the sentence to make sense
** so it acts as additional information only  
** so, like an adjective, it acts as additional information only  
** SAT Writing will typically use appositives regarding the profession or title of a person
** SAT Writing will typically use appositives regarding the profession or title of a person
*** and will exclude one of or delete the necessary commas in wrong answers:
*** and will exclude one of or delete the necessary commas in wrong answers:
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** "A little brat, my brother Steve hates Minecraft"
** "A little brat, my brother Steve hates Minecraft"
** "An expert gamer, my other brother John loves Minecraft"
** "An expert gamer, my other brother John loves Minecraft"
** these phrases are not essential for the sentence to make sense
*** these phrases are not essential for the sentence to make sense
* See:
* See:
**[http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/appositive.htm  The Appositive: Recognize an appositive when you find one (chompchomp.com)]
**[http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/appositive.htm  The Appositive: Recognize an appositive when you find one (chompchomp.com)]


=== Verb ===
=== consecutive nouns ===
* verbs are the center of a sentence
* nouns that are next to one another in a sentence can be doing one of several things:
* verbs also act as descriptors to add information to a sentence
*# making a list, if separated by commas
*#* ex. "Tom, Joe & Buck went hunting, fishing, and hiking."
*#** the nouns are multiple subjects and objects separated by commas
*# indicating possession if the first noun has an apostrophe and there is no punctuation separating them
*#* ex. "the dog's food"
*# acting as distinct Indirect and Direct Objects, if not separated by punctuation
*#* ex. "The owner gave the dogs food"
*#** dogs = Indirect Object (it is the recipient of the action but not the "direct" result of the action itself)
*#** food = Direct Object (it is the direct result of the action)
*#*** i.e. the owner gave "food" (DO) to the dogs (IO)
* # the first noun acting as an adjective, if not separated by punctuation and if the 1st noun is singular
*#* ex. "dog food"
*#** dog = a noun that describes, as an adjective, what kind of food it is
 
=== noun modifying another noun (attributive noun) ===
{{Noun as modifier}}
* SAT Writing test questions on attributive nouns:
** they may also appear in the passages
** and they can help the student to isolate word parts and understand what is going on in a sentence, especially to eliminate possessive noun forms
click EXPAND for an example of how identifying attributive noun can help answer [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 14]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>By requiring students to do community service in order to graduate, school [14] [officials’ are taking away students’] choice to give up their time for nonprofit activities, making volunteerism less meaningful and pleasurable.
 
A) officials’ are taking away students’ [NO CHANGE]
B) officials are taking away students
C) officials are taking away student’s
D) officials are taking away students'
</pre>
* elimination:
** x A) the noun "official's" incorrectly possesses the verb "are" (see possessive nouns for more)
** x B) "students choice" = an incorrect plural form of the attributive noun "student" (student choice = the kind of choice for students)
* we now have the distinction between C) student's (singular possessive) D) students' (plural possessive)
** thus we match the correct D) students' to "By requiring students" from the sentence
</div>
* note that when two nouns are next to one another without apostrophes (possessive forms), it is not necessarily an attributive noun
** it could also be two nouns juxtaposed as direct and indirect objects
click EXPAND for an example of how two nouns next to one as direct and indirect objects not possessive or attributive nouns [[https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-10.pdf CB Writing practice test 10, question 36]]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Tuition-reimbursement programs signal that employers offer their [36] [workers' opportunities] for personal and professional development. </pre>
 
A) workers' opportunities [NO CHANGE]
B) workers opportunities'
C) workers opportunities
D) workers' opportunity's
 
* elimination:
** x B) workers opportunities' << "opportunity's" cannot possess the next word, "for" (a preposition); nouns can only possess nouns, so eliminate
** x D) workers' opportunity's << same as B)
* we now have either "worker's opportunities" or "workers opportunities"
** in context, do the "workers" possess "opportunities"
*** reading the sentence, we see that the core SV of the sentence is: "programs offer"
*** the verb "offer" requires an object: what does it offer? = "opportunities" = the direct object of the verb "offer"
*** then we see that "programs offer opportunities" to whom? = "workers" = the indirect object of "offer"
*** therefore we eliminate A) because "workers" do not possess "opportunities", they are being "offered them," so C)
</div>
 
== Pronoun ==
* "pro" = "for"
* "noun" = "word"
** therefore, pronoun = "for the word"
 
=== pronoun reference/ antecedent ===
* pronouns are a reference to a previously (or sometimes later) stated noun or idea
** pronoun ''antecedent'' (when the noun comes before the pronoun) to a previously stated noun:
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It's a pretty color."
** pronoun antecedent to a previously stated idea:
*** "The sky is entirely blue. It makes me happy."
** pronoun precedent (pronoun comes before the noun) to a subsequently stated noun (uncommon):
*** "It went well, but the test was still hard."
 
=== pronoun functions in Writing section questions ===
* in the Writing section, pronouns mark important distinctions for:
** subject-verb matching
** object matching/ identification
** dependent clauses
*** especially subordinate clauses ("..., which are ....") and relative clauses ("... that are...")
 
=== "any" and other pronouns with multiple parts of speech (not always a pronoun) ===
* pronouns can also be determiners, subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns that act distinctly
** "that" can be:
*** "That is the question!"  << "that" = pronoun/ subject of the sentence
*** "That point is irrelevant" << "that"= adjective / determiner (specifies "point")
*** "The point that is irrelevant is not the question" << "that" = relative pronoun/subject of the relative clause ("that is irrelevant")
** "any" can be:
*** "Any difficulty is to be ignored." << "any" = determiner / adjective
**** note that the subject is "difficulty" and not "any"
*** "Any of you guys want candy?" << "any" = pronoun / subject
**** "of you guys" = prepositional phrase, which is never the subject of a sentence
**** "any" can act as a singular or plural pronoun
***** "Any is better than none"
***** "Any of them are crazy"
click EXPAND for example of "any" as a determiner and not a subject pronoun on CB practice test 9, question 35:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Any New York City construction project using municipal funds [35] ____  required to consider whether historical artifacts will be affected during construction... </pre>
A) are <br>B) have been <br>C) is <br>D) were<br>
* the subject of the clause is "project" and not "any" or "funds"
** therefore, the subject-verb agreement is "project is" (third person singular conjugation "is")
* A) ''are'' is designed to fool the student into match "any" or "funds" as plural (conjugating as "are")
**  here, "any" is a determiner/adjective that modifies "project"
*** thus, "any", "New York City," and "construction" are all adjective modifiers
**** any = determiner(adjective) that describes "project"
**** New York City = attributive noun that describes "project"
**** construction = attributive that describes "project"
**  here, "funds" is an object of the present participle adjective "using" (verb acting like an adjective)
*** thus, "using" and "funds" are a modifying phrase to describe "project"
</div>
 
=== personal v. relative pronoun ===
* personal pronoun
** = ''I, me, you, he/she/it, him/her, we/us, they/them''
** personal pronouns act as a subject or object of a sentence or preposition:
*** subjective case: ''I, you, he/she/it, we, they''
*** objective case: ''me, you, him/her/it, us, them''
**** note that the noun in a preposition is an object, so it uses the objective case
***** ex.  "''the girl next to me''", "t''he desk between you and me''"
* relative pronoun
** = a pronoun that creates a conjunction between an independent and a dependent or relative clause
** include: ''that, when, where, which, who, whom, whose''
*** "who" relative pronouns have subjective, objective and possessive cases
**** subjective: ''who''
**** objective ''whom''
**** possessive: ''whose''
==== personal and relative pronouns and prepositional phrases ====
* ex., "''of which''", "''of whom''" v. "''of them''"
** the preposition "of" creates a relationship
** the personal pronoun "them" is the object of a preposition:
*** ''The players took off their jerseys, and only two '''of them''' were dirty''
*** ''Most of the jerseys used by the players were clean, but two '''of them''' were dirty''
**** "two" = the subject
**** "of them" = prepositional phrase, with "them" the object of the preposition
***** "them" refers to "jerseys"
** the relative pronouns, "that", which" or "who" create a relative clause and acts as the subject of that clause:
*** "''The players took off their jerseys, '''which''' were almost all perfectly clean''"
**** "which" = the subject of the relative clause
**** "which" refers to "jerseys"
*** "''The game was one by five players, of whom we are most proud''
**** "we" = subject of the relative clause
**** "of whom" = prepositional phrase (adverbial as it modifies "are")
**** "whom" refers to "the players"
 
=== possessive personal pronoun ===
* personal pronouns have a distinct form to indicate possession
* see below under "Apostrophe" for distinctions between possessive pronouns and contracts
** such as ''its'' (possessive pronoun) vs. ''it's'' (contraction of "it is")
 
=== pronoun forms chart ===
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronoun Forms
| '''Subjective form''' ||'''Objective form''' ||'''Possessive'''
'''adjective'''
| '''Possessive'''
'''Predicate adjective'''
|'''Reflexive form'''
|-
| I
|| me
|| mine
|| mine
|myself
|-
| you (singular)
|| you
|| your
|| yours
|| yourself
|-
|he
|him
|his
|his
|himself
|-
|she
|her
|her
|hers
|herself
|-
|it
|it
|its
|its
|itself
|-
|we
|us
|our
|ours
|ourselves
|-
|you (plural)
|you
|your
|yours
|yourselves
|-
|they
|them
|their
|theirs
|themselves
|}
 
== Verb ==
* verbs are the center of a sentence and express action
* but verbs can also act as descriptors, or modifiers, to add information to a sentence
** ex.: "On my way to to the store, I saw my friend" v. "Going to the store, I saw my friend"
** ex.: "On my way to to the store, I saw my friend" v. "Going to the store, I saw my friend"
*** both express the same idea using different grammatical forms
*** both express the same idea using different grammatical forms
* multiple verbs:
=== multiple verbs===
** one or more verbs an act upon one subject
* one or more verbs an act upon one subject
** if so, they must maintain “parallel” tense (past, present or future)
* if so, they must maintain “parallel” tense (past, present or future)
** ex.:  
* ex.:  
*** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.”
** “He went to the store, bought food, and returned home.”
* for SAT Writing,  
=== subject-verb agreement ===
* maintain subject-verb agreement (i.e. singular subject = singular verb form)
[[File:The radiation that occurs.jpg|thumb|The finite verb "is" is the verb of the main, or independent, clause.  The S-V of the clause is "radiation is". The S-V of the relative clause  is "that occurs".  The relative clause come between the S and V of the main clause. (Sentence adapted from Digital PSAT practice test 1.)]]
** identify the correct noun as subject, as test will try to confuse subject nouns from relative nouns
* for SAT Writing, maintain subject-verb agreement  
** transitive v. intransitive verbs:
** i.e. singular subject = singular verb form
** transitive verbs require an object:  
* identify the correct noun as subject, as test will try to confuse subject nouns from relative nouns
*** ex. “She offers” must be followed by an object (“she offers help”
* note that finite verbs have a subject but non-finite verbs do not
** transitive verbs often include an indirect object:  
* "is" and "are" are finite verbs
*** ex. “She offers help” may include an indirect object (“she offers them help
** match them to their subject in order to identify correct S-V conjugation ("it is" v. "they are")
** intransitive verbs require a preposition or adverb:
=== transitive v. intransitive verbs ===
*** ex. w/ preposition: “She arrived” requires a preposition: “She arrived at the house” (note how “She arrived house” is incorrect, thus requiring a preposition)
* transitive verbs require an object:  
*** ex. w/ adverb: “She arrived at the house late” (late = adverb bc it modifies the verb “arrive” – how did she arrive? she arrived late.)
** ex. “She offers” must be followed by an object (“she offers help”
 
* transitive verbs often include an indirect object:  
 
** ex. “She offers help” may include an indirect object (“she offers them help
=== Pronoun ===
* intransitive verbs require a preposition or adverb:
** ex. w/ preposition: “She arrived” requires a preposition: “She arrived at the house” (note how “She arrived house” is incorrect, thus requiring a preposition)
** ex. w/ adverb: “She arrived at the house late” (late = adverb bc it modifies the verb “arrive” – how did she arrive? she arrived late.)
=== infinitives ===  
* = the "to" form of a verb
** in Romance languages, would be the unconjugated root verb ("jugar" means "to play"; "yo juego" means "I play")
* infinitives are NOT the action verb a sentence
* instead, infinitives are used to express or describe the state or purpose of something or to give an opinion about it
** infinitives answer ''who, what, or why''
** when assessing infinitives, as yourself what the verb is doing and how does the infinitive relate to it or the other words
*** i.e., "I studied hard in order to pass the test."
** i.e, infinitives act like adjectives, adverbs or nouns
* as adjectives, infinitives describe a noun
** ex. "I wanted her tears to disappear"
*** "tears" = direct object; "to disappear" modifies not the verb "want" but the noun "tears," so "to disappear" is acting as an adjective
* as adverbs, infinitives describe a verb
** "One must study to learn" (or could be, ""To learn, one must study")
*** "to learn" is an adverb modifying the verb "study"
* as nouns, infinitives act as a thing or condition
** as nouns, infinitives can be either the subject or object of a clause or phrase
** ex. "To err is human; to forgive is divine"
*** the subject of these clauses are both infinitives, the verbs are "is", and the objects/subject complements are the noun "human" and the adjective "divine"
** ex. "I want to do something"
*** here the infinitive "to do" is the direct object and "something" is the indirect object
**** i.e., what do I want? "to do"; what do I want to do? "something"
** ex. "My dog loves to chase his ball."
*** what does my dog love? "to chase" (direct object); what does he love chasing? "his ball" (indirect object)
* sources:
** https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html
** https://www.theclassroom.com/identify-function-infinitive-sentence-2604.html
** https://www.dailywritingtips.com/grammar-review-1-particles-and-phrasal-verbs/


== Punctuation ==
== Punctuation ==
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**** i.e., IC <=> , + <=> IC
**** i.e., IC <=> , + <=> IC
=== Semicolon ===  
=== Semicolon ===  
* semicolons juxtapose complete sentences (ICs) for comparison or emphasis or their relationship
* semicolons juxtapose complete sentences as ICs for comparison or emphasis of a relation
* eliminate semicolons if there are not ICs on both sides of the semicolon
* eliminate semicolons if there are not ICs on both sides of the semicolon
* an exception is use of the semicolon as a "super comma" (see above)
** rarely used on the SAT
=== comma ===
=== comma ===
* commas create a pause
* commas create a pause
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** combine IC + DC or DC + IC
** combine IC + DC or DC + IC
** with a conjunction, to combine IC's  
** with a conjunction, to combine IC's  
*** i.e. "IC, and IC"
** act parenthetically (two commas)
** act parenthetically (two commas)
* eliminate according to the rules
* eliminate according to the rules
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=== Apostrophe for possession ===
=== Apostrophe for possession ===
* only nouns can possess nouns
* only nouns can possess nouns
** see SAT Writing section for more rules on possessive nouns
** that is, possessive nouns must be followed by a noun
*** ex. "the dog's bone" ("dog" and "bone" are nouns)
*** with the exception that an adjective may modify the possessed noun
**** as in, "the dog's tasty bone" << "tasty" correctly modifies "bone"
*** otherwise, possessive nouns cannot be followed by punctuation, verbs, adverbs, preposition, etc.
<pre>As the carbon dioxide level in Earth’s atmosphere rises, the [10] [worlds’ ocean’s] absorb more carbon dioxide
</pre>
click EXPAND for an example from CB Practice test no. 9 Writing section no., question no. 10:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>
A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE]
B) world’s oceans’
C) world’s oceans
D) worlds oceans</pre>
Elimination:
<pre>
x A) worlds’ ocean’s [NO CHANGE] << eliminate because "ocean's" absorb" = the singular noun "ocean" cannot possess the verb "absorb"; also a possessive noun cannot possess another possessive noun; also
x B) world’s oceans’ << eliminate because "oceans'" absorb" = the plural noun "oceans" cannot possess the verb "absorb"
y C) world’s oceans << the possessive noun "world" correctly possesses the plural noun "oceans"
x D) worlds oceans</pre> << eliminate because the plural noun "worlds" cannot modify the plural noun "oceans" (see "attributive noun" in section above on nouns for rules on how a singular (and not plural) noun can modify another noun)
</div>
click EXPAND for more on apostrophe for possession:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* <pre>'s</pre> = the suffix for a singular noun to indicate possession
* <pre>'s</pre> = the suffix for a singular noun to indicate possession
** ex. "the dog's toy" = one dog possesses (has) a toy
** ex. "the dog's toy" = one dog possesses (has) a toy
Line 491: Line 900:
** if there are two possessor nouns possessing different things (such as "their own"), both possessor nouns will use the apostrophe
** if there are two possessor nouns possessing different things (such as "their own"), both possessor nouns will use the apostrophe
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's teams both won the game"
*** i.e., "Ted and Javon's teams both won the game"
</div>


=== Possessive pronoun ===
=== Possessive pronoun ===
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* note that many other languages have the possessive pronoun
* note that many other languages have the possessive pronoun
** however, they lack the apostrophe indicator for nouns, thus instead of using the apostrophe to indicate possession ("the dog's toy") they structure the idea as "of" or "belonging to", as in, "the toy of the dog" or the toy that belongs to the dog"
** however, they lack the apostrophe indicator for nouns, thus instead of using the apostrophe to indicate possession ("the dog's toy") they structure the idea as "of" or "belonging to", as in, "the toy of the dog" or the toy that belongs to the dog"
=== apostrophes for contraction ===
=== apostrophes for contraction ===
* contractions are used for "to be" words to join the subject and the verb via the apostrophe, as in:
* contractions are used for "to be" words to join the subject and the verb via the apostrophe, as in:
Line 504: Line 915:
*** such use is informal and is mimicking the slurring of a noun with "is"  
*** such use is informal and is mimicking the slurring of a noun with "is"  
*** note that since the 's causes confusion with the possessive form of the apostrophe, in written English, the subject-verb contraction is avoided
*** note that since the 's causes confusion with the possessive form of the apostrophe, in written English, the subject-verb contraction is avoided
{{Clause (grammar)}}
** <u>the SAT will not test this use of a contraction</u>
 
== Clause ==
{{:Clause (grammar)}}


== Phrase ==
== Phrase ==
* = a sentence part that contains either a noun or a verb ''but not both''
* = two or more words that are part of a sentence but does not contain both a subject and a verb
* phrases are used to add information to a sentence or modify one of its parts
* phrases are used to add information to a sentence or modify one of its parts
** "In the afternoon..." = a prepositional phrase
** "In the afternoon..." = a prepositional phrase
Line 513: Line 927:
=== gerund phrases ===
=== gerund phrases ===
* gerunds  
* gerunds  
* -ing forms of verbs that act as a noun
** = -ing forms of verbs that act as a noun
* gerund phase is a gerund + other word/s that describes the state of something
*** "Smoking is bad for you" << "smoking" = gerund (a noun created by the present participle, "smoking")
** ex.: "Running with the ball, he scored!"
* gerund phrases are gerunds + additional words that create a phrase
* for more on gerunds see [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Parts_of_speech#participles_and_gerunds]]
** usually the gerund phrase is the subject of a sentence:
*** "''Getting up early'' makes for a productive day."
*** "getting up early" is the subject (gerund phrase + adverb "early") of the verb "makes"  
* for more on gerunds see [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Parts_of_speech#participles_and_gerunds Parts of speech: participles and gerunds (School4Schools wiki]] or [[https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Grammar#noun_phrase Phrases: noun phrase (School4Schools wiki]]
* SAT Writing test generally does not test for gerunds, although they will appear in the text
* SAT Writing test generally does not test for gerunds, although they will appear in the text


=== participial phrase ===
=== participle or participial phrase ===
* = verb phrases that act as an adjective
* = verb phrases that act as an adjective
* participle = a verb that functions as an adjective, usually in the past tense or -ing form
* participle = a verb that functions as an adjective, usually in the past tense or -ing form
Line 525: Line 942:
* as an adjective:
* as an adjective:
** ex.: "Songs sung softly are soothing"
** ex.: "Songs sung softly are soothing"
*** "sung" = a verb but used here with "softly" to describe "songs"  
*** "to sing" is a verb, but the past participle, "sung" becomes an adjective here
*** thus "sung softly" = an adjective
*** the participial phrase is "songs sung softly" which is the subject of the verb "are"
**** but one that uses a verb (sung), thus making it a "participial phrase"
* note: participial phrases are often the source of "'''dangling modifiers'''", which are adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they are modifying
* note: participial phrases are often the source of "dangling modifiers", which are adjectives or adjective phrases that are not clear as to what they are modifying
** ex.: "Smiling grandly, she won the choral competition"  
** ex.: "Singing softly she won the choral competition"  
*** = unclear if she won the competition ''because'' she was "smiling grandly" or if she was "smiling grandly" ''when'' she won the tournament
*** = unclear if she won the competition becuase she was "singing softly," or she was "singing softly" when she won the tournament
* for the SAT Writing test, note that the gerund or past particle adjective in participial phrases are NEVER the subject of the sentence!
* see [[https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/dangling_modifiers_and_how_to_correct_them.htm dangling modifiers (owl.purdue.edu)]]
** ex.: "The extra players ''practicing'' all season as a backup have never had a chance to play"
** Here the participial phrase "practicing all season" and the prepositional phrase, "as a backup" modify the subject "players"
*** therefore we match the plural "players" with the plural present perfect verb "have never had" (as opposed to the singular "has never had")
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7, on identifying the subject of a sentence for matching with the verb:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
From [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-6.pdf College Board practice test 6, Writing question no. 21 (test page 24)]
** see CB Test 6, Writing question no. 7
<pre>The experiment confirmed their suspicions when the half of the lake containing the phosphates [7] was teeming with blue-green algae. </pre>
A) was teeming
B) were teeming
C) are teeming
D) teems
 
* we see that the subordinate clause starting with "when" is what the question is about
** therefore we can ignore the main clause, "The experiment confirmed their suspicions"
* identify the preposition "of" and the prepositional phrase it creates, "of the lake"
** nouns in prepositional phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
* identify the participle "containing" and the participial phrase it creates, "containing the phosphates"
** nouns in participial phrases ARE NEVER the subject of the sentence
* therefore our subject is "the half"
** which thereby matches to the singular, past tense A) was teeming
</div>
 
* appositive phrases at end of a sentence:
** SAT test often measures concision in sentences using appositive phrases instead of clauses:
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
** note how some appositive phrases can also be written as a relative clause:
*** ''"The teacher discussed Theodoras, '''who was''' a gallic Roman general and emperor"''
* for appositive phrase on the SAT see Test 6, Writing question no. 1:
 
In the winter of 1968, scientists David Schindler and
Gregg Brunskill poured nitrates and phosphates into
Lake [227, this is one] of the 58 freshwater bodies that
compose Canada’s remotely located Experimental Lakes
Area.
A) NO CHANGE B) 227. Which is one C) 227. One D) 227, one
 
* We can eliminate
** A) because it creates two independent clauses that require a missing coordinating conjunction
*** should read: ''"... into Lake 227, '''and''' this is one of..."''
** B) because the period before the relative clause "Which" creates an incomplete sentence
** C) because the sentence created by the period, ''". One of the..."''  lacks a verb and is therefore an incomplete thought
*** the subject "One" does not have a verb
*** and the relative clause ''"that compose Canada's..."'' is an incomplete thought, as well
* only D) is grammatically correct because it creates an appositive modifying phrase following "Lake 227"
** note that this phrase could be a relative clause similar to B) but with a comma instead of a period
 
* see:
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/dangling_modifiers_and_how_to_correct_them.htm dangling modifiers (owl.purdue.edu)]
** [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/participles.html participles(owl.purdue.edu)]


=== prepositional phrase ===
=== prepositional phrase ===
* built around a preposition, which indicates time, place, or other relationship to the main clause or a noun
* built around a preposition, which indicates time, place, or other relationship to the main clause or a noun
* prepositions never precede a verb
** prepositions are followed by a noun (and not a verb), which forms a "prepositional phrase"
** ex.: "The teacher about tells" or "The odor from stinks" makes no sense  
** prepositions tell us more about the nouns, esp. the subject or object of a sentence
** however, prepositional phrase frequently precede or follow a verb, ex.:
*** they may follow a verb, but they do not directly precede a verb, as in:
*** "The teacher tells ''about math''."
*** incorrect: "The teacher about tells" or "The odor from stinks" makes no sense  
** * "The odor ''from the garbage'' stinks overwhelmingly"
*** correct: "The teacher tells us about math" or "The odor from the garbage stinks"
* prepositions include: ''above, about, after, along, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, between, by, down, during, from, for, into, near, of, on, over, through, to'' (when suggesting a direction)'', toward, under, until, up, upon, with, without''  
* prepositions include:
** ''at, by, for, from, in, of, on, since, to'' (when suggesting a direction)'', with''
** other prepositions include, ''above, about, after, along, around, before, behind, below, beside, between, down, during, into, near, over, through, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, without''  
** see [https://englishpost.org/grammar-lessons-list-of-common-prepositions/ List of Common Prepositions (englishpost.org)]
** see [https://englishpost.org/grammar-lessons-list-of-common-prepositions/ List of Common Prepositions (englishpost.org)]
* prepositional phrases may be separated from the main clause by a comma or not
click EXPAND for examples of prepositions and prepositional phrases with or without commas:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* without a comma = required (or essential or restrictive) phrase in order for the sentence to make sense, usually following a verb or providing an essential idea for a noun:
** "I went ''to the store''"
** "Get the ornaments ''from the attic''"
** "My papers ''in the notebook'' are a mess"
* with a comma = non-required (or non-essential or non-restrictive) phrase that is not needed in order for the sentence to make sense, ex.:
** ''During the blackout'', I got tons of work done"
** "''After eating lunch'', I'm taking a nap"
</div>
* for SAT Writing identify prepositions in order to:
* for SAT Writing identify prepositions in order to:
** to distinguish the subject of a sentence from other words that might be confused with the subject in wrong possible answers
** to distinguish the subject of a sentence from other words that might be confused with the subject in wrong possible answers
*** see example below from CB Test 6 question no. 7 in the section on participial phrases
** to get rid of unimportant information in order to better read the sentence and answer the question
** to get rid of unimportant information in order to better read the sentence and answer the question
click EXPAND for an example of ignoring prepositional phrases from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf Practice Test 9 Writing question 5]:
click EXPAND for an example of ignoring prepositional phrases from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-9.pdf Practice Test 9 Writing question 5]:
Line 549: Line 1,029:
<pre>Seawater seeping into fissures in the ocean floor is heated by underlying magma, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals from the water.</pre>
<pre>Seawater seeping into fissures in the ocean floor is heated by underlying magma, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals from the water.</pre>
* we can identify the core of the sentence by ignoring the prepositions:
* we can identify the core of the sentence by ignoring the prepositions:
** Seawater <s>''seeping into fissures in the ocean floor''</s> is heated <s>''by underlying magma''</s>, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals <s>''from the water''</s>.'' which leaves us with:
** Seawater <s>''seeping into fissures in the ocean floor''</s> is heated <s>''by underlying magma''</s>, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals <s>''from the water</s>.'' which leaves us with:
<pre> Seawater is heated, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals</pre>
<pre> Seawater is heated, and the heat drives chemical reactions that remove oxygen, sulfates, [5] [and remove] other chemicals</pre>
** which allows us to eliminate possible answers more readily:
** which allows us to eliminate possible answers more readily:
Line 558: Line 1,038:
y D) and << creates an appropriate list of objects to the subject verb "heat drives"
y D) and << creates an appropriate list of objects to the subject verb "heat drives"
</pre>
</pre>
* elimination:
A) [and remove] NO CHANGE
B) it also removes
C) also removing
D) and
</div>
</div>
* SAT test frequently tests for subject-verb case agreement and includes a prepositional phrase that matches to a wrong answer
* SAT test frequently tests for subject-verb case agreement and includes a prepositional phrase that matches to a wrong answer
** ex. Practice Test 7, question 19:  
click EXPAND for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-7.pdf Practice Test 7 Writing question no. 19]:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.
</pre>
</pre>
* possible answers are testing if the student can identify the subject of the sentence
* possible answers here test if the student can identify the subject of the sentence which may be obscured (hidden) by or confused with a prepositional phrase
* grammar rules here are
** prepositional phrases
** gerunds
<pre>
<pre>
A) [includes] NO CHANGE
A) [includes] NO CHANGE
Line 578: Line 1,051:
D) has included
D) has included
</pre>
</pre>
click EXPAND for the answer and explanation for Practice Test 7 Writing question no. 19:
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* removing the preposition "of" clarifies the subject:
<pre>The most common forms of professional development provided to employees [19] [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.
** The most common forms <s>''of professional development provided to employees''</s> leaves us with
<pre>The most common forms [includes] coaching, mentoring, technical assistance, and workshops.</pre>
* which clarifies the correct conjugation of the subject-verb:
** = ''forms include''
*** = third person plural, so "I include, you include, he/she/it '''includes''', we include, they '''include'''"
*** thus the correct answer B) include
</div>
</div>
=== verb phrase ===
=== verb phrase ===
* = an additional verb that helps to modify or clarify another verb
* = an additional verb that helps to modify or clarify another verb
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* students can see look at these transition sentences the same way they do transition words (above), i.e.:
* students can see look at these transition sentences the same way they do transition words (above), i.e.:
** does it provide a positive or negative transition?
** does it provide a positive or negative transition?
** does it continue a thougth or idea?
** does it continue a thought or idea?
** does it contrast or change the subject?
** does it contrast or change the subject?
* topic sentence =
** connects to prior paragraph's concluding sentence
* concluding sentence =
** sets up the next paragraph
* passage concluding sentence
** = states thesis, main point, or call to action
** for the SAT Writing section, the concluding sentence '''MUST relate to / repeat the passage TITLE.'''
click expand for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-8.pdf CB Writing practice test 8, question 10] on a transition topic sentence:
click expand for an example from [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-8.pdf CB Writing practice test 8, question 10] on a transition topic sentence:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
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** not generally included on the SAT
** not generally included on the SAT


=== Idiomatic words ===
=== Idioms & idiomatic words ===
* "idiomatic" = words, phrases or expresses that have no set rule and exist from common usage
* "idiomatic" = words, phrases or expresses that have no set rule and exist from common usage
** idiomatic is different from "informal" or colloquial (local, common) language
** idiomatic is different from "informal" or colloquial (local, common) language
* By definition idiomatic words have no set rule
* By definition idiomatic words have no set rule
** idioms include colloquial (informal) expressions, prepositions, or vocabulary.
** prepositions can be "idiomatic" in that there may not be a logic or rule in the difference between some of them, but we tend to use one over the other, even it is synonymous
* HOWEVER, on the SAT Writing section, students can use elimination techniques to eliminate down to the correct idiomatic expression
* HOWEVER, on the SAT Writing section, students can use elimination techniques to eliminate down to the correct idiomatic expression
*
* see this video for demonstration of [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV7QK_ex0jQ&list=PLyC6Fj2OdXlpDypu0__dsv5y6EZS5NpmH&index=1&t=4s on elimination techniques with idiomatic & vocabulary questions (by Michael Bromley)]]
* see this video for demonstration of [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV7QK_ex0jQ&list=PLyC6Fj2OdXlpDypu0__dsv5y6EZS5NpmH&index=1&t=4s on elimination techniques with idiomatic & vocabulary questions (by Michael Bromley)]]
Click EXPAND for an example from CB Test 6, Writing question no. 21, on how to eliminate idiomatic possible answers using grammar rules:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
From [https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/pdf/sat-practice-test-6.pdf College Board practice test 6, Writing question no. 21 (test page 30)]
<pre>Burland [21] advocated using soil extraction: removing small amounts of soil from under the tower’s north side, opposite its tilt, to enable gravity to straighten the tower.</pre>
A) advocated using
B) advocated to use
C) advocated the using of
D) advocating to use
* In the answer explanation, the CB tells us that B) "advocated to use" and C) "advocated the using of" are wrong because it creates incorrect idiomatic expressions.
* However, we can eliminate them through a grammatical analysis of the possible sentences.
* First, let's look at A) "Burland advocated using soil extraction"
{| class="wikitable"
! Parts of speech
|-
|A) ||'''Burland'''|| '''advocated'''|| '''using'''|| '''soil'''|| '''extraction'''
|-
|part of speech: || subject (noun)|| verb || direct object (gerund) || attributive noun (adjective)|| indirect object
|-
|B) ||'''Burland'''|| '''advocated'''|| '''to use '''|| '''soil'''|| '''extraction'''
|-
|part of speech: || subject (noun)|| verb || indirect object (infinitive) || attributive noun (adjective)|| indirect object
|-
|C) ||'''Burland'''|| '''advocated'''|| '''the using'''|| '''of soil'''|| '''extraction'''
|-
|part of speech: || subject (noun)|| verb || direct object () ||preposition|| indirect object
|-
|D) ||'''Burland'''|| '''advocating'''|| '''to use'''|| '''soil'''|| '''extraction'''
|-
|part of speech: || subject (noun)|| gerund or past progressive missing "was"|| indirect object (infinitive) || attributive noun (adjective)|| indirect object
|-
|}
* A) correctly employs the noun "using" (gerund = a verb that acts as a noun) as the direct object
* B) incorrectly employees the noun "to use" (infinitive) as an indirect object
* C) correctly uses noun "the using" (gerund) but incorrectly uses the preposition "of soil extraction" a modifier of "the using"
* D) incorrectly uses the verb "advocating" without the auxiliary verb "was"; otherwise it incorrectly does not create a complete independent clause
=== "such as" ===
* "such as" is a phrase that acts like a:
** subordinating conjunction
*** when introducing non-restrictive (not essential) information
*** "''I get tired of board games, such as chess or checkers"''
*** = <u>preceded by a comma</u>
** conjunction
*** when introducing restrictive (essential) information
*** "''Board games such as checkers or Monopoly are boring"''
*** = <u>not separated by a comma</u>
* note: "such as" is <u>never followed by a colon</u>
</div>


=== Modifiers usage ===
=== Modifiers usage ===
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*** does the new sentence focus on the main idea?
*** does the new sentence focus on the main idea?
*** avoid passive voice & subject -verb inversion (placing the subject after the verb)
*** avoid passive voice & subject -verb inversion (placing the subject after the verb)
** grammar and punctuation errors
** direct v. passive voice
** emphasis on the main clause ("emphasis shift")
** grammar and punctuation errors, especially regarding punctuation between clauses and phrases


== "Command of Evidence” questions: adding or deleting text ==
== "Command of Evidence” questions: adding or deleting text ==
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** then decide between "yes" or "no"
** then decide between "yes" or "no"


== Vocabulary ==
== Vocabulary questions ==
<< to do
 
* Writing section vocabulary questions are never antonyms
** whereas reading section vocabulary will usually include 1 or 2 antonyms (have opposite meaning)
* identify sentence context, especially as regards the word "type" or "characteristics" regarding
** person or thing?
*** certain words describe people and the things they do differently from words for things
** emotion or physical? 
*** certain words are used for emotional v. physical states
** ability or capacity/ size? 
*** people and some things have ability
*** things are more likely to have capacity or size
* identify part of speech and associated other words 
** if a noun
*** is it a subject or object
*** what is its verb?
*** any adjectives or descriptive phrases?
** if a verb
*** what is the subject and object? 
*** any adverbs?
** is it part of the main clause or a subordinate clause?
 
== Useful vocabulary words for SAT Writing section ==
 
* '''mere / merely'''
** = "only" as in "barely any but some or a few"
*** can be negative, as in "''What, that's merely a two bucks!''"
**** also, "hardly"
*** or positive, as in
**** "''Merely two bucks is all it took!''"
**** or "''I got in done in mere seconds''"
** the SAT frequently measures student comprehension of this word 
*** note that "merely" is different from "a little," "a few" or "few" 
* '''nevertheless'''
** = "yes, but..."
* '''nominal'''
** = "insignificant", "barely or hardly any", "just a few"
* see also
** similar entry for the SAT Reading section : Useful vocabulary words for SAT Reading section
** [[Transition words translations]]


== Grammar and punctuation rules ==
== Grammar and punctuation rules ==
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* avoid repetition and unnecessary pronouns
* avoid repetition and unnecessary pronouns
* avoid [[#Emphasis shift]] errors
* avoid [[#Emphasis shift]] errors
[[Category:SAT verbal]]
[[Category:SAT exam prep]]
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:SAT Writing]]
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