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Grammar for high school admissions tests: Difference between revisions

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Grammar for high school admissions tests (view source)

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* = a grammatically complete thought
* = a grammatically complete thought
** contains a finite verb
** contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject)
** makes a complete thought
** makes a complete thought
*** ''The dog is playing.''  
*** ''The dog plays.''  
**** as opposed to ''Since he is playing,'' which is not a complete thought.
**** as opposed to ''Since the dog plays  <<'' not a complete thought
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb)
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
* a sentence must contain a '''finite verb'''
 
** '''finite verb'''
* see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs
*** = verb that has a subject
*** finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> of the sentence or clause
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''non-finite verb''' is a verb that <u>does not have a subject</u>
** see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs


== Clause ==
== Clause ==
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
**
 
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause'''
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause (IC)'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause (DC)'''


=== independent clause (IC) ===
=== independent clause (IC) ===
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
** ex. '''''The dog is playing happily''', since I gave him a bone''
** ex. '''''The dog plays happily''', since I gave him a bone''
*** "The dog is playing happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.


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* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* ex. ''The dog is playing happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* ex. ''The dog plays happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* <u>test</u>:
* <u>to test</u>:
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
*** ''Since it is raining.''
*** ''Since it is raining.''
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* verb that has a subject
* verb that has a subject
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements


=== non-finite verb ===
=== non-finite verb ===
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|-
|-
|''I''
|''I''
|see
|''see''
|
|
|''We''
|''We''
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|-
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|''He/ She / It''
|sees
|''sees''
|
|
|''They''
|''They''
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** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
** <u>test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence  
** <u>to test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence  
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario
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=== perfect tenses ===
=== perfect tenses ===


* "perfect" tense means that the action is has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* <u>note</u>:  
* <u>note</u>:  
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "had"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "has"
!pronoun
!pronoun
!auxiliary verb  
!auxiliary verb  
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|''have''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|''wondered''
|-
| colspan="7" |<u>Irregular verb</u>:"spend"
|-
|''I''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|
|
|
|-
|''You''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|''You (plural)''
|''have''
|''spent''
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|'''''has'''''
|''spent''
|
|''They''
|''have''
|''spent''
|}
|}


* note that the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u>
* <u>note</u>: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u>


==== past perfect ====
==== past perfect ====
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* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
* note the singular
{| class="wikitable"
|+Past Perfect
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|''I had played''
|''We had played''
|-
|''You had played''
|''You (plural) had played''
|-
|''He/ She / It had played''
|''They had played''
|}


==== future perfect ====
==== future perfect ====
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|beginning
|beginning
|begun
|begun
|have/hs begun
|have/has begun
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began
|-
|-
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|drank
|drank
|drinking
|drinking
|drunk
|drunk ("drunken" is also used as
("drunken" is also used  
past participle adjective
as past participle adjective  
|have/has drunk
|have/has drunk
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank
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|have/has grown
|have/has grown
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew
|-
|hang
|
|hang/hung
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|lend
|lend
|lend
|lend
|lended
|lent
|lending
|lending
|lent
|lent
|have/has lent
|have/has lent
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has lended
| style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has lended
|-
|-
|swim
|swim
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'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)'''
'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)'''


ex. "Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice."
* ex.  
 
** ''Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.''
  "Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice"
** ''Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice''


'''6. separate dates and place names'''
'''6. separate dates and place names'''
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* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence
* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts:
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts:
*** ex.  ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing''
** ex.   
**** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence
*** ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing''
**** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly:
*** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence
*** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly:
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing''
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing''
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing''
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing''
****
 
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses


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* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>:
* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>:
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.''
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.''
** ''Although I was tired,I took the test.''
** ''Although I was tired, I took the test.''
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.''
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.''
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** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect  
** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect  
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect  
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect  
* seasons are NOT capitalized
** We go to Maine in the summer


=== attributive noun ===
=== attributive noun ===
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=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
in compound objects, remove the first noun and test the pronoun
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+
> Steve and I went to the park.
!Subjective
 
!Example
> Steve and me went to the park
!Objective
 
!Example
me went to the park = wrong
|-
 
|I
> She gave Joey and me a bad grade.
|''You and I won''
 
|me
> She gave Joey and I a bad grade
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|you
|''You and I won''
|you
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|he / she/ it
|''He and you won''
|him / her/ it
|''They beat you and her''
|-
|we
|''We beat them''
|us
|''They beat us''
|-
|they
|''They beat us''
|them
|''We beat them''
|}
To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects:


remove "joey"
* remove the first noun and test the pronoun
** ''Steve and I went to the park.''versus
** ''Steve and me went to the park''
** <u>remove</u> "Steve"
*** ''Me went to the park'' = incorrec
** ''She gave Joey and me a bad grade.''
** ''She gave Joey and I a bad grade''
** <u>remove</u> "Joey"
*** ''She gave I a bad grade'' = incorrect


she gave I a bad grade = wrong
* <u>common wrong pronoun answers include:</u>
** Us kids are going  << should be "We kids are going"
*** <u>to test</u>:  remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect
**** thus, "We are going" works


=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===
=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===
>  prepositions create a prep phrase


> prep prhase contains a
* prepositions create a prep phrase


> preoposition + an object
* prepositional phrases consist of
** preposition + object (noun or noun phrase)


Between you and I, grammar sucks.  x b/c I = subjective
* prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns
 
** ''Between you and I, grammar sucks''. versus:
Between you and me, grammar sucks.
** ''Between you and me, grammar sucks.''
 
***
The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.
** <u>remove</u> "you" and replace "between" with "for"
 
*** can also be read, ''For you and me, grammar sucks''
The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.
*** ''For I, grammar sucks'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''For me, grammar sucks'' << correct (objectives case)
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.''
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.''
*** remove "the dog"
*** ''The car stopped right in front of he.'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''The car stopped right in front of him.'' << correct (objective case


=== indefinite pronouns ===
=== indefinite pronouns ===
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*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is"
*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is"


* adverbs that do not use the '''''-lly'''''
* adverbs that do not use the '''''-ly'''''


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|late
|late
|late
|late
|}
== prepositions ==
* prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally
** prepositional phrase = <u>preposition</u> + <u>object of the preposition</u>
* prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the <u>object of the preposition</u>
** that relationship depends on the preposition
** i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence
** prepositions include:
*** '''''about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon'''''
{| class="wikitable"
!Subject-Verb
!preposition
!object
!incorrect preposition
|-
|
| colspan="2" | -- prepositional phrase --
|
|-
|''We sat''
|'''''in'''''
|''the grandstand''
|''We sat '''for''' the grandstand''
|-
|''Every afternoon we go''
|'''''to'''''
|''the bakery''
|''Every afternoon we go '''on''' the bakery''
|-
|''The shady spot is''
|'''''under'''''
|''the tree''
|''The shady spot is '''over''' the tree''
|-
|''Stop reading''
|'''''at'''''
|''the chapter's end''
|''Stop reading '''for''' the chapter's end''
|}
|}


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** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but"
** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but"
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.''
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.''
* '''''I have, I'd'''''
* '''''its, it's'''''  
* '''''its, it's'''''  
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun
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* in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas
* in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas
* high school admissions tests may have redundancy questions, such as
* '''''again, also, back'''''
** ''The clerk refunded back the money''  << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant
** ''The clerk refunded '''back''' the money''  << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant
** <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will have more questions on redundancy, such as:
** ''In addition, we '''also''' saw the zebras.''  << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant
*** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.''  << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant
 
* <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as:
** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.''  << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant


== Misc concepts, skills & words ==
== Misc concepts, skills & words ==
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