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Grammar for high school admissions tests: Difference between revisions

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Grammar for high school admissions tests (view source)

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General notes about high school admissions tests grammar/ usage sections
* given 4 possible answers, if you see that an answer is clearly wrong, then you know that the other possible answers are correct
* therefore, you can use the 3 correct answers as examples of correct usage/grammar on other questions
== Sentence ==
== Sentence ==


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* = a grammatically complete thought
* = a grammatically complete thought
** contains a finite verb
** contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject)
** makes a complete thought
** makes a complete thought
*** ''The dog is playing.''  
*** ''The dog plays.''  
**** as opposed to ''Since he is playing,'' which is not a complete thought.
**** as opposed to ''Since the dog plays  <<'' not a complete thought
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb)
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
* a sentence must contain a '''finite verb'''
 
** '''finite verb'''
* see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs
*** = verb that has a subject
*** finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> of the sentence or clause
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''non-finite verb''' is a verb that <u>does not have a subject</u>
** see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs


== Clause ==
== Clause ==
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''
**
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause'''


==== independent clause (IC) ====
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause (IC)'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause (DC)'''


=== independent clause (IC) ===
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
** ex. '''''The dog is playing happily''', since I gave him a bone''
** ex. '''''The dog plays happily''', since I gave him a bone''
*** "The dog is playing happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.
==== coordinating conjunction ====
* = FANBOYS
* "coordinates" like sentence parts
* combines
** ICs, nouns and nouns, verbs and verbs, DCs and DCs, etc.
*** it always joins "coordinate" or like sentence parts
* note that transition words are NOT coordinating conjunctions
** ''as ,however, nevertheless, etc.'' ARE NOT coordinating conunctions
** they are conjunctive adverbs
*** which means that they set up a contrast or comparison of verbs / predicates
** RULE: however is NOT  coordinating conjunction
** so do not use it to combines ICs
*** ''I am hungry, however, I don't have money for lunch'' = incorrect
*** needs a period or semicolon:
**** ''I am hungry; however, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct
**** ''I am hungry. However, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct


==== dependent clause (DC) ====
==== dependent clause (DC) ====


* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* ex. ''The dog is playing happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* ex. ''The dog plays happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* <u>test</u>:
* <u>to test</u>:
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
*** ''Since it is raining.''
*** ''Since it is raining.''
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* verb that has a subject
* verb that has a subject
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers and objects
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements


=== non-finite verb ===
=== non-finite verb ===
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|-
|-
|''I''
|''I''
|see
|''see''
|
|
|''We''
|''We''
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|-
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|''He/ She / It''
|sees
|''sees''
|
|
|''They''
|''They''
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** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
** <u>test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence  
** <u>to test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence  
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses, but it will not be measured on the high school or college entrance tests
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses
** ex. ''Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade''  
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario
*** ex.  
**** ''Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade.''
***** = past tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the past action)
**** ''If I get a good grade, my mom will buy me a new phone.''
***** = present tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the present action)


=== participle ===
=== participle ===
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** past participle adjective: ''The topic '''discussed''' was grammar''  
** past participle adjective: ''The topic '''discussed''' was grammar''  
* the participle is also used in the '''perfect tenses'''
* the participle is also used in the '''perfect tenses'''
=== participle phrases ===
* students will improve reading comprehension and usage scores by identifying participle or participial phrases
* a phrase does not have a finite-verb
* present or past participles can create adjectives that create "participle phrases"
* participle phrases add information to an IC without having to use another clause
** ex.
*** '''''Having done the research''', he aced the lab test''  << present participle adjective phrase
*** ''I sneezed all day, '''suffering from allergies'''  << present participle adjective phrase''
*** ''The turkey was delicious, '''cooked to perfection'''''.  << past participle adjective phrase
* <u>note</u>: high school entrance exams will not measure this concept directly, but it is helpful for students to recognize


=== perfect tenses ===
=== perfect tenses ===


* "perfect" tense means that the action is has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* <u>note</u>:  
* <u>note</u>:  
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
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* uses "'''have'''" and "'''has'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* uses "'''have'''" and "'''has'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** note that the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present</u>
** ''We have gone to France''
*** = we went to France and it is still part of who we are
** ''He has talked about going to France''
*** = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France
* note: the present perfect does not use "'''''of'''''"
** ''She '''should of''' asked for one'' << incorrect
** correct = ''She should have asked for one.''


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "had"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "has"
!pronoun
!pronoun
!auxiliary verb  
!auxiliary verb  
!past participle
!past participle
!
!----
!subject
!subject
!auxiliary verb
!auxiliary verb
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|''have''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|''wondered''
|-
| colspan="7" |<u>Irregular verb</u>:"spend"
|-
|''I''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|
|
|
|-
|''You''
|''have''
|''spent''
|
|''You (plural)''
|''have''
|''spent''
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|'''''has'''''
|''spent''
|
|''They''
|''have''
|''spent''
|}
|}


* ''We have gone to France''
* <u>note</u>: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u>
** = we went to France and it is still part of who we are
* ''He has talked about going to France''
** = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France
 
=== past perfect ===


==== past perfect ====
* uses "'''had'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* uses "'''had'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** "had" is the same for all cases (
** "had" is the same for all cases (
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
* note the singular
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+Past Perfect
=== future perfect ===
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|''I had played''
|''We had played''
|-
|''You had played''
|''You (plural) had played''
|-
|''He/ She / It had played''
|''They had played''
|}


==== future perfect ====
* uses "'''will have'''" and +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* uses "'''will have'''" and +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future  
* indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future  
** ''By next Tuesday, I '''will have walked''' twelve miles''
** ''By next Tuesday, I '''will have walked''' twelve miles''


== Verbs to know ==
== Verbs forms to know ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Irregular verbs to know
!verb
!present
!simple past
!present participle
!past participle
!perfect tense
! style="background-color:#b3b3b3" |incorrect
participle
|-
|be
|am/are/is
|was
|being
|been
|have/has been
|style="background-color:#cccccc"| n/a
|-
|begin
|begin
|began
|beginning
|begun
|have/has begun
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began
|-
|break
|break
|broke
|breaking
|broken
|have/has broken
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has broke
|-
|drink
|drink
|drank
|drinking
|drunk  ("drunken" is also used as
past participle adjective
|have/has drunk
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank
|-
|drive
|drive
|drove
|driving
|driven
|have/has driven
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drove
|-
|forget
|forget
|forgot
|forgetting
|forgotten
|have/has forgotten
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has forgot
|-
|go
|go/goes
|went
|going
|gone
|have/has gone
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has went
|-
|grow
|grow/grows
|grew
|growing
|grown
|have/has grown
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew
|-
|hang
|
|hang/hung
|
|
|
|
|-
|lend
|lend
|lent
|lending
|lent
|have/has lent
| style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has lended
|-
|swim
|swim
|swam
|swimming
|swum
|have/has swum
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have//has swam
|-
|write
|write
|wrote
|writing
|written
|have/has written
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has wrote
|}
 
== Verb mixups ==


=== lie v. lay: ===
=== lie v. lay: ===
* lie = to put oneself down
* lie = to put oneself down
** or be in the position of lying down
** or be in the position of lying down
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|}
|}


=== irregular past participles ===
=== may v. please ===
go
= modal verbs (express possibility) that change the meaning of another verb
* may = indicates possibility or a request for permission (usually of oneself)
** ''May I have a couple more donuts?''
* please = a polite command or request (usually of someone else_
** ''Please leave me alone!''
* rule:
** may is used to ask for permission
** please is used to make a request
* ex.:
** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct
** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect


* simple past (preterite) = went
=== may v. can ===


participle : gone
* please = asks for permission, or makes a reques
* can = indicates ability
** if the sentence is a request, use "may" instead of "can"


perfect tenses use the participle!
=== teach v. learn ===


past perfect : have/has gone
* teach = to provide learning
* learn = to receive or engage in learning
* ex. ''The student learned from what the teacher taught''


present perfect: had gone
future perfect: will have gone
== Punctuation ==
== Punctuation ==


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* singular possession. ''Owen's parents are nice''  << singular "Owen"
* singular possession. ''Owen's parents are nice''  << singular "Owen"
* plural possession: ''The students' teacher is not so nice''  << plural "students"
* plural possession: ''The students' teacher is not so nice''  << plural "students"
** note that some words are plural, so the possessive form will be '''''<nowiki/>'s''''' as opposed to '''''s''''''
*** ''That's the children's playground'' << children = plural, so the apostrophe goes before the '''s'''
** similar words include, men, women,
* note: compound possessives rule:
* note: compound possessives rule:
** if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe
** if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe
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** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't''  
** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't''  


* see '''homophones''' below for more
* contracting "is" on relative pronouns
** ''that's easy, who's going?''  
*** = that is easy, who is going
** <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with common nouns
*** ex.  ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
*** or,  ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
 
3. indicate plurality


* <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with a common noun
* ex. "1960's",
** ex. ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
** or,   ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken


3. indicate plurality
* the high school admissions test will not measure for this use of the apostrophe


* ex. "1960's",
=== colon ===
<u>does 1 thing</u>:


* the high school admissions test will not measure for this use of the apostrophe
1. sets up an example or explanation, following an independent clause (IC)
 
* rules:
** colons <u>must be preceded</u> by an IC
** <u>can be</u> followed by any grammatical form or punctuation, except another colon
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' cooking, cleaning and straightening things up''
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' they cooked, cleaned, and straightened things up''
** a colon would not follow "such as" since "such as" does the same thing as a colon
*** "such as" would be preceded by a comma if non-restrictive
**** ''I like playing board games, such as chess or checkers''
**** ''Doctors such as Dr. Jones are very caring''
* <u>note</u>: colons are not measured on high school entrance exams


=== comma ===
=== comma ===
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* comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction
* comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."''
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."''
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.''
'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)'''
* ex.
** ''Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.''
** ''Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice''
'''6. separate dates and place names'''
* month, day, year : ''We took the test on April 11, 2023.''
* month day, year, in the middle of a sentence
** O''n April 11, 2023, we took the test''
* no comma for Month Year: ''We took the test in April 2023.''
=== dash ===
<u>does 2 things</u>:
1. acts like a colon
* rule: if acting like a colon, there will be a single dash preceded by an IC
2. acts like parentheses
* rule: if acting like parentheses, there will be two dashes
<u>does 2 things</u>:
'''1. direct quotation'''
* = the specific words attributed to someone
** ''He said, "I do say."''
* see rules for commas above when using quotation marks
'''2. indicate sarcasm or other reference'''
* ''She is my "best friend"... not.''
* will note be measured on high school or college entrance exams
=== parentheses ===
<u>does 1 thing</u>:
* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts:
** ex. 
*** ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing''
*** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence
*** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly:
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing''
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing''
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses
=== quotation marks ===
*indicate a direct statement by a particular speaker
*a comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction:
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."''
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.''


* rules:  
* rules:  
** uses quotation marks around the quoted words
** uses quotation marks around the quoted words
** first word of the equation is capitalized
** first word of the quotation is capitalized
** if at the end of a sentence, will have a period (often but not always inside the quotation mark)
*** He said, "I say."
** if the quotation ends a sentence, it will be followed by a period (often but not always inside the quotation mark)
** the name of the speaker may also follow the quotation
*** ''"A hammer can fix anything," he said, wryly.''
** if a question, will have a question mark
** if a question, will have a question mark
*** ''The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"''
*** ''The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"''
** the  
** if the speaker name is after a quoted question, the question mark replaces the comma:
*** ''"Why are you so funny?" the clown asked.''
** exclamation points also replace the comma in a quotation
* <u>note</u>: if the quoted portion is a fragment of a larger written quotation, the first word is not capitalized
** but that will not be measured on high school admissions tests


'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)'''
=== semicolon ===
<u>does 2 things</u>:
 
'''1. combines independent clauses'''


ex. "Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice."
* test:
** replace the semicoln with a period and see if both sides could stand as a sentence by themselves . If not, it is wrong.
** if the semicolon separates (or combines) two distinct subject-verb combinations AND each could be a sentence by itself, then the semicolon is correct


  "Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice"
'''2. acts as a "super comma"'''


'''6. separate dates and place names'''
* a super comma is a list of examples separated by semicolons
** ex.  ''We're heading to Europe this summer: Florence, Italy; Valencia, Spain; and Munich, Germany.''


* month, day, year : ''We took the test on April 11, 2023.''
*<u>note</u>: this use will not appear on high school entrance exam, but it may appear on a college entrance exam
* month day, year, in the middle of a sentence
** O''n April 11, 2023, we took the test''
* no comma for Month Year: ''We took the test in April 2023.''
*


== Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses ==
== Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses ==
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* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>:
* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>:
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.''
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.''
** ''Although I was tired,I took the test.''
** ''Although I was tired, I took the test.''
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.''
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.''
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*** which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy")
*** which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy")


== Nouns ==
== Noun ==


=== proper noun capitalization ===
=== proper noun capitalization ===


* titles are capitalized
* proper noun = capitalized names for people, places, titles, organizations, etc.
** the test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another
* formal titles are capitalized
*** ex.: Tom jones
** the high school admissions test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another
*** ex.:  
**** ''Dr. tom Jones is a famous physician'' << incorrect
**** ''University of missouri'' << incorrect
** note that "the" is not capitalized for proper names
*** ''the Navy'' (correct) v. ''The Navy'' (incorrect)
*** ''the Nationals'' (correct) v. ''The Commanders'' (incorrect)
* generic or general professions or titles <u>are NOT</u> capitalized:
** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect
* seasons are NOT capitalized
** We go to Maine in the summer


=== quotation marks ===
=== attributive noun ===
do 3 things:


1. quotations
* = nouns that modify another noun
** but are not adjectives
* '''''dog''' food, '''wine''' class, '''government''' class, '''class''' government''


2. indicate sarcasm
* these nouns modify the 2nd noun
* called "attributive" because they convey an "attribute" to the second noun


=== semicolon ===
* the attributive noun is singular (almost always)
does 2 things
** bc it's acting like an adjective (which doesn't change plurality)
*** i.e., ''red shoes'' instead of ''reds shoes'' (incorrect)
**** so ''dog food'' instead of ''dogs food'' (incorrect)


1. combines independent clauses
* the attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies
** ''big dog bone'' instead of ''dog big bone'' (incorrect)


* test: if the semicolon separates (or combines) two distinct subject-verb combinations AND each could be a sentence by itself, then the semicolon is correct
== Pronoun ==


2. acts as a "supercomma"
=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Subjective
!Example
!Objective
!Example
|-
|I
|''You and I won''
|me
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|you
|''You and I won''
|you
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|he / she/ it
|''He and you won''
|him / her/ it
|''They beat you and her''
|-
|we
|''We beat them''
|us
|''They beat us''
|-
|they
|''They beat us''
|them
|''We beat them''
|}
To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects:


*
* remove the first noun and test the pronoun
** ''Steve and I went to the park.''versus
** ''Steve and me went to the park''
** <u>remove</u> "Steve"
*** ''Me went to the park'' = incorrec
** ''She gave Joey and me a bad grade.''
** ''She gave Joey and I a bad grade''
** <u>remove</u> "Joey"
*** ''She gave I a bad grade'' = incorrect


* Note: this use will not appear on high school entrance exam, but it may appear on a college entrance exam
* <u>common wrong pronoun answers include:</u>
** Us kids are going  << should be "We kids are going"
*** <u>to test</u>:  remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect
**** thus, "We are going" works


=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===
in compound objects, remove the first noun and test the pronoun


> Steve and I went to the park.
* prepositions create a prep phrase


> Steve and me went to the park
* prepositional phrases consist of
** preposition + object (noun or noun phrase)


me went to the park = wrong
* prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns
** ''Between you and I, grammar sucks''. versus:
** ''Between you and me, grammar sucks.''
***
** <u>remove</u> "you" and replace "between" with "for"
*** can also be read, ''For you and me, grammar sucks''
*** ''For I, grammar sucks'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''For me, grammar sucks'' << correct (objectives case)
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.''
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.''
*** remove "the dog"
*** ''The car stopped right in front of he.'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''The car stopped right in front of him.'' << correct (objective case


> She gave Joey and me a bad grade.
=== indefinite pronouns ===


> She gave Joey and I a bad grade
* refer to a person, thing, amount, etc. in general (''any, none, some'') or to all of something (''all, both, each'')


remove "joey"
* indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on wether they refer to one or many/all of something
* the high school admissions test may include subject-verb mismatch when using indefinite pronouns


she gave I a bad grade = wrong
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="4" |third person singular conjugation = ''"s"'' as in ''it goes, it is, it seems''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!as pronoun
!with preposition
!as determiner
|-
|anyone / anything
|''anything will do''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''each''
|''each goes well''
|''each of them goes well''
|''each dress is pretty''
|-
|''either''
|''either works''
|''either of them works''
|''either choice will do''
|-
|''every / everyone / everything''
|''everyone wants some''
|''everyone of them wants some''
|''every child loves candy''
|-
|''much''
|''much is missing''
|''much of that is gone''
|''much fun was had''
|-
|''neither''
|''neither agrees''
|''neither of them agrees''
|''neither witness agrees''
|-
|''no one''
|''no one feels''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''nothing''
|''nothing is good''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''one / someone''
|''one wants''
|''one of them wants''
|''one boy wants''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Plural Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="4" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!pronoun example
!with preposition
!as determiner
|-
|all
|all are fine
|all of them are fine
|all choices work
|-
|both
|''both are fine''
|both of them are fine
|both choices work
|-
|few
|''few go there''
|few of them go
|few people go
|-
|many
|''many are the brave''
|many of them are
|many people are
|-
|others
|''others know enough''
|
|
|-
|several
|several are bringing lunch
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="3" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!singular
!plural
|-
|all
|''all is well here''
|all are well
|-
|any
|''any of them is fine''
|any of them are okay
|-
|most
|the most works
|most work
|-
|none
|''none goes well''
|none go well
|-
|some
|some is enough
|some are not enough
|-
|
|
|
|}


=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===
* '''''each, every, few, some,''''' etc. can be either a determiner (modifier) or pronoun
>  prepositions create a prep phrase
** as determiners, these words modify a noun:
*** ''every person thinks so, few people think so''
*** some bees sting, all vehicles
** as pronouns, they are the subject of a sentence


> prep prhase contains a
== Adjective ==


> preoposition + an object
=== cumulative v. coordinate adjectives ===


Between you and I, grammar sucks.  x b/c I = subjective
* cumulative adjectives = no comma separating them
* the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun
** ex.  ''stupid smart people''
*** = "smart people" who are stupid
*** ''expensive small gift''
**** = expensive "small gift"
** ''small expensive gift''
*** = small "expensive gift"
* coordinate adjectives = have a comma separating them
** ex. big, red balloon
*** = the balloon is both big and red balloon
*** ''red, big balloon = big, red balloon = big & red ballon''
** test: if the adjectives are coordinate, then
*** you can add a coordinating conjunction, such as "and" in between them
*** you can switch them
**** and it means the same thing


Between you and me, grammar sucks.
== Adverb ==


The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.
* adverb modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb
* in the high school entrance exam, the adverb may be measured by <u>confusion with an adjective</u>
* ex.  
** ''She ran home quick'' << incorrect, as "quick" modifies the verb "ran" so it needs to be the adverb, "quickly"
** ''She ran home quickly'' << correct
** ''He yelled angry at the man'' << incorrect as "angry" is an adjective, which modifies a noun
** ''He yelled angrily'' << correct
*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is"


The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.
* adverbs that do not use the '''''-ly'''''


=== attributive nouns ===
{| class="wikitable"
nouns that act like adjectives (but are not adjectives)
|+
!adverb
!adjective
|-
|better
|better
|-
|fast
|fast
|-
|hard
|hard
|-
|late
|late
|}


dog food
== prepositions ==


wine glass
* prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally
** prepositional phrase = <u>preposition</u> + <u>object of the preposition</u>
* prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the <u>object of the preposition</u>
** that relationship depends on the preposition
** i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence
** prepositions include:
*** '''''about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon'''''


class government
{| class="wikitable"
!Subject-Verb
!preposition
!object
!incorrect preposition
|-
|
| colspan="2" | -- prepositional phrase --
|
|-
|''We sat''
|'''''in'''''
|''the grandstand''
|''We sat '''for''' the grandstand''
|-
|''Every afternoon we go''
|'''''to'''''
|''the bakery''
|''Every afternoon we go '''on''' the bakery''
|-
|''The shady spot is''
|'''''under'''''
|''the tree''
|''The shady spot is '''over''' the tree''
|-
|''Stop reading''
|'''''at'''''
|''the chapter's end''
|''Stop reading '''for''' the chapter's end''
|}


dog, wine, class = nouns, but they are modifying the 2nd noun .. giving them an "attribute"
== homophones ==
* words that sound the same (or about the same) but spell and mean differently


the attributive noun is ALWAYS SINGULAR .. bc it's acting like an adjective (which don't change pluraity)
* high school assessment tests will commonly use:
* '''''accept, except'''''
** accept = verb, to welcome or admit
*** ''The school '''accepted''' me!''
** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but"
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.''
* '''''I have, I'd'''''
* '''''its, it's'''''
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun
** ''it's'' = contraction of "it is"
* '''''there, they're, their'''''
** ''there'' = indicates specificity or location
** ''they're'' = contraction of "they are"
** ''their'' = plural possessive pronoun
* '''''then, than'''''
** ''then'' = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then")
** ''than'' = makes a comparison
* '''''to, too, two'''''
** ''to'' = preposition (or particle) indicating a direction or purpose
** ''too'' = also
*** ''two'' = 2
* '''''wear, we're, were, where'''''
** ''wear'' = to have clothes on
** ''we're'' = contraction of "we are"
** ''were'' = plural simple past tense of "to be"
** ''where'' = indicates location or situation
* '''''who's, whose'''''
** ''who's'' = contraction for "who is"
** ''whose'' = possessive form of the pronoun "who"
* '''''you're, your'''''
** you're = contraction for "you are"
** your = possessive form of "you"
* others may include:
** '''''capital, capitol'''''
*** ''capital'' = the offical or main city or place of a state or country
**** can also mean: "money," "head of"
*** ''capitol'' = the building in which the government resides or operates
** '''''site, cite, sight'''''
** '''''fare, fair'''''
** '''''peace, piece'''''
* note: compare to ''homonyms'', which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently
** ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree
** high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept


> dog food not dogs food
== Redundancy ==


attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies
* in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas
* '''''again, also, back'''''
** ''The clerk refunded '''back''' the money''  << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant
** ''In addition, we '''also''' saw the zebras.''  << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant


big dog bone.
* <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as:
** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.''  << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant


dog big bone  x
== Misc concepts, skills & words ==


<nowiki>-------</nowiki>
=== double negative ===
 
* look for negative words that create a "double" or redundant negative
* usually the first nagative will be hiddent in a contraction
** ''didn't, couldn't, won't,'' etc.
* ex.
** ''She coudn't find it no where'' <<incorrect double negative
** ''Janie didn't see nobody'' << incorrect double negative


=== cumulative v. coordinate adjectives ===
=== either/or vs. neither/nor ===
cumulative adjectives = no comma


the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun
* when '''either''' & '''neither''' are conjunctions, they require a matching counterpart


expensive small gift
* thus we have
** ''either ... or''
*** = positive, or affirming
*** ''I'd be glad to have either this or that.''
** ''neither ... nor'' 
*** = negative or negating
*** ''We saw neither fish nor fowl.''
* note: either and neither have other grammatical functions (adverb, pronoun), but the high school placement test will not specifically measure those uses
** just know that ''either'' goes with ''or'' and ''neither'' goes with ''nor''


= expensive [small gift]
**


small expensive gift
=== many v. much ===


= small [expensive gift]
* '''many''' is for nouns that can be counted
** ''He's owns many shoes.''
* '''much''' is used for nouns that cannot be counted (non-count nouns)
** ''There is much work to do.''
** Noncount nouns include
*** ''art, electricity, happiness, money, music, rice, water, etc.''
*** note that these non-count nouns are singular ("art is...")


coordinate adjectives
=== nothing v. any ===


= uses a comma
* '''''nothing''''' indicates an absence of something
* '''''any''''' indicates a lack of or generality of something
** ''are there any people here?'' < asks if anyone is possibly there?
** ''nothing is going on'' << indicates an absolute absence


big, red balloon
=== questions ===


if you can swtich them, or put "and" in between them, it uses a comma (coordinate)
* a narrator may ask a question that seems like a spoken quotation, but it may not need quotation marks
** ex.''What are we doing next?''
*** as opposed to
*** ''"What are we doing next?" Steve asked''
**** note that the question mark replaces the comma
* tests may present a question that contains an error in "has" or "had" for a question
** turn the question into a statement and see if the subect-verb match is correct
** ex
*** ''Have you seen my friends?''
**** = You have seen my friends 
*** ''How long has they been working on it?''
**** ''They has been working on it'' << <u>incorrect</u> (needs the plural auxiliary verb "have")


=
=== quotation marks not needed ===


big and red balloon = ok
* a thought or narrated statement does not need quotation marks
** quotation marks separate words distinctly stated by someone other than the narrator or author
** so the narrator or author can say something or say something someone else said without quotation marks
** ex.
*** ''Mr. Jackson told us to sit down.''
*** ''If you're hungry, let me know.''
* commands with a stated name do not need quotation marks:
** ''Jerry, leave your paper right there.''


red, big balloon = ok
* when a relative clause is employed following "stated" or "said," the quotation mark is not needed:
** ex.  ''She said the test was super easy''
*** = ''She said [that] the test was super easy''
**** so quotation marks are not necessary


=== may v. please ===
=== "that there" error ===


* may = indicates possibility or a request for permission (usually of oneself)
* ''That there dog is mean'' << incorrect because "that" and "there" are used incorrectly as adverbs to modify noun
** ''May I have a couple more donuts?''
* please = a polite command or request (usually of someone else_
** ''Please leave me alone!''
* rule:
** may is used to ask for permission
** please is used to make a request
* ex.:
** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct
** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect


=== homophones ===
* it could be written:
** ''That dog there is mean''
*** "there" is now an adverb modifying the verb "is"
*** and "that" is a determiner (indicates a specific dog, as in "that one")


* words that sound the same but spell differently
* or, if "that" is used as a relative pronoun:
** ''What he means to say is '''that''' there are too many to choose from.'' < "that" = relative pronoun, and "there" is an adverb


* high school will commonly use:
[[Category:Language Arts]]
** ''there, they're, their''
[[Category:Grammar]]
*** ''there'' = indicates specificity or location
*** ''they're'' = contraction of "they are"
*** ''their'' = plural possessive pronoun
** ''its, it's''
*** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun
*** ''it's'' = contraction of "it is"
** ''then, than''
*** ''then'' = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then")
*** ''than'' = makes a comparison
* college admissions tests may also use:
** ''site, cite, sight''
** ''fare, fair''
* note: compare to ''homonyms'', which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently
** ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree
** high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept
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