US History: BIG IDEAS for American self-conception and historical choices[edit | edit source]
Students may address historical themes, events, and periods using the various notions of self-conception of Americans across history. Note that these concepts change over time. A short list of topics/ core ideas includes:
the American DreamCoined in the 1930s by James Truslow Adams, the “American Dream” describes the belief that anyone can achieve upward mobility through hard work and opportunity. It draws on earlier ideals of liberty and equality from the Revolution and 19th‑century expansion. In practice, access to this dream has varied by class, race, gender, and immigration status across U.S. history.
American exceptionalismThe idea, articulated as early as 1630 in Puritan sermons and later by Alexis de Tocqueville (1830s), that the United States has a unique mission or character among nations. It often emphasizes republican government, individual liberty, and social mobility. The concept has justified both reform at home and activism abroad, and is debated for its blind spots and exclusions.
Americanism Debated since the Founding (Philadelphia, 1787), “Americanism” refers to the shared civic ideals—constitutionalism, individual rights, and pluralism—that define national identity. Waves of immigration, westward expansion, and civil rights struggles have continually reshaped who belongs. The concept often contrasts civic nationalism with ethnic or cultural definitions of belonging.
Civil libertiesRooted in the Bill of Rights (ratified 1791) and later amendments, civil liberties are protections from government infringement on freedoms like speech, religion, press, assembly, and due process. Courts interpret these rights through landmark cases that expand or limit their scope. In wartime or crises, tensions rise between security and liberty.
Civil RightsBroadly, civil rights are guarantees of equal treatment under the law, advanced through constitutional amendments (1865–1870) and major legislation in the 1950s–60s. The Civil Rights Movement (especially 1954–1968) targeted segregation, voter suppression, and discrimination. Ongoing struggles extend to gender, disability, LGBTQ+, and Indigenous rights.
"City on a Hill"In 1630 aboard the Arbella bound for Massachusetts Bay, John Winthrop urged colonists to build a “city upon a hill,” a model Christian community visible to the world. Americans later adapted the phrase as a civic ideal of moral example and leadership. It has been invoked in domestic reform and foreign policy rhetoric.
DebatePublic and political debate has been central since the ratification debates (1787–1788) between Federalists and Anti‑Federalists. Congress, town halls, newspapers, and later radio/TV/online media shaped how Americans contest ideas. Debate reflects democratic participation, party competition, and free expression.
DissentFrom colonial protests (Boston, 1760s–1770s) to modern movements, dissent is the right to challenge authority and policy. Protected primarily by the First Amendment, it includes speech, press, assembly, petition, and civil disobedience. Government responses have ranged from accommodation to suppression, especially during war or unrest.
Due processAnchored in the Fifth (1791) and Fourteenth Amendments (1868), due process requires fair legal procedures and protections before government can deprive life, liberty, or property. It includes notice, impartial hearings, and rights of the accused. Courts have applied due process to both criminal justice and certain fundamental rights.
DutyIn American civic life since the Revolution (1770s), duty means obligations to community and nation—such as obeying laws, jury service, taxes, and defense. Political leaders often balance citizens’ duties with their rights and freedoms. Debates arise over the scope of civic duty versus personal autonomy.
E pluribus unumAdopted for the Great Seal in 1782 in Philadelphia, the Latin motto means “Out of many, one.” It originally referred to unity among states and later to national identity formed from diverse peoples. It complements later mottos like “In God We Trust.”
EqualityDeclared in 1776 in the Declaration of Independence—“all men are created equal”—the ideal of equality has driven reform from abolition to suffrage to civil rights. Constitutional amendments and legislation have moved the law closer to the ideal. Social and economic inequalities continue to provoke debate over policy and justice.
Expansionism Includes: western, overseas and economic expansion. American history can be understood through the lens of, primarily, geographic expansion. The colonial period is marked by conflicts with Native tribes and the French and Spanish as a result of westward settlement by colonists, who by the 1750s had designs to settle lands across the Appalachian Mountains. With the end of the American Revolution (1783) the new nation acquired all lands east of the Mississippi River, and with the Louisiana Purchase (1803) additional lands west of the river, which was expressed in the 1840s with the idea of Manifest Destiny (1840s). Subsequent expansions followed the Mexican-American War (1846), the Indian Wars (1870s-1880s), railroad building, Alaska Purchase, and moved overseas with the Spanish-American War (1898). U.S. expansion involved settlement, farming/ranching, resource extraction, trade, and political acquisition (territories and states).
Foreign non-Intervention / InterventionDating to Washington’s Farewell Address (1796), non‑entanglement guided early policy; yet the U.S. intervened in Latin America and the Pacific (1898) and globally in the 20th century. Debates weigh national interest, moral duty, and costs of war. The balance between restraint and intervention shifts with threats and ideology.
Freedom/ Freedoms Freedoms are those "liberties" possessed by individuals to which government must not interfeCore. Freedoms include movement, protest, religion, speech, self-defense, etc. See also "Rights."
Freedom of conscienceRooted in colonial experiments (Rhode Island, 1636) and guaranteed nationally by the First Amendment (1791), freedom of conscience protects belief, worship, and non‑belief. It underpins religious liberty and exemptions while interacting with anti‑discrimination principles. Courts mediate conflicts among conscience, law, and civil rights.
IdealismAmerican idealism links national purpose to values like liberty, democracy, and human rights—at home and in foreign policy (e.g., Wilsonian idealism, 1918). Reformers invoke ideals to critique injustices and inspire change. Critics warn that idealism can mask interests or overreach.
Intellectual propertyU.S. protection of inventions and authorship begins in the Constitution (1787, Art. I, Sec. 8) and early statutes (1790s). Patents, copyrights, and trademarks aim to spur innovation while eventually returning ideas to the public domain. Policy balances creators’ rights with access and competition.
InnovationFrom early mechanization (Lowell mills, 1820s) to the digital age, innovation drives productivity and social change. Public policy—patents, education, infrastructure, and research funding—shapes innovation ecosystems. New technologies create opportunities and disruptions across regions and classes.
Issues focusAmerican politics often organizes around salient issues—slavery, tariff, suffrage, civil rights, labor, environment, and immigration—rather than only ideology. Issue salience shifts with events, movements, and media. Coalitions form and realign as priorities change.
JusticeIn U.S. history, justice refers to fair laws, impartial courts, and equitable outcomes. The Constitution (1787) establishes structures aiming for justice, but application has evolved through amendments and landmark cases. Social movements press the legal system to live up to its promises.
Limited governmentFramed in 1787 with checks and balances and a separation of powers to prevent tyranny, limited government reserves many powers to the people and the states (Tenth Amendment, 1791). Over time, federal power expanded during crises and reforms, yet constitutional limits and judicial review remain central.
PatriotismExpressed since the Revolution (1775–1783), patriotism is devotion to country and its ideals. It can be symbolic (flags, pledges), civic (service, voting), or critical (holding the nation to its principles). Debates arise over what counts as patriotic action in dissent and war.
Personal autonomyAnchored in liberal traditions and certain constitutional protections, personal autonomy emphasizes self‑determination in private life and choices. Courts have recognized related privacy and liberty interests in select contexts. Tensions appear when personal choices affect public welfare or others’ rights.
Personal / public safetySince the earliest militias and watch systems (colonial era), Americans have balanced individual safety with collective security. Policymaking weighs crime, public health, disasters, and national security. Civil liberties debates intensify when safety measures expand state power.
PoliticsAmerican politics encompasses parties, elections, interest groups, media, and governance across local, state, and federal levels. From the First Party System (1790s) to modern polarization, institutions mediate conflict and cooperation. Rules of the game—voting laws, districts, and campaign finance—shape outcomes.
Practicality / Self-interestA pragmatic strain in U.S. history blends ideals with self‑interest in policy, business, and diplomacy. Leaders often justify choices using both moral aims and practical benefits. Historians analyze how material incentives and ideology interact in major decisions.
Push- / pull- factors (migration)Identified in migration studies since the late 19th century, push factors (like famine, persecution, or lack of jobs) drive people away, while pull factors (like opportunity, land, or safety) attract them. U.S. migration waves include 1840s–50s European arrivals, Great Migration (1916–1970), and late‑20th‑century global immigration. Policy, labor markets, and wars shape flows.
RegionalismFrom sectional divides (North–South–West, 19th century) to contemporary cultural and economic regions, regionalism highlights local identity and interests. It influences voting, policy priorities, and cultural expression. Federalism provides a framework for regional diversity within national unity.
Rights>.todo
Self-relianceCelebrated by writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson (1841) and in frontier mythos, self‑reliance stresses individual initiative and responsibility. It has informed entrepreneurship, homesteading, and social policies. Critics note that opportunity often depends on social networks and public goods.
Self-rule/ self-governancePracticed in colonial assemblies and town meetings (New England, 1600s), self‑governance expanded with independence (1776) and the Constitution (1787). It emphasizes consent of the governed and local control. Debates persist over the proper level—local, state, federal—of decision‑making.
TechnologyFrom canals and railroads (1820s–1860s) to electricity, automobiles, and the internet, technology transforms work, war, and daily life. Adoption patterns create regional winners and losers and raise regulatory questions. Education and infrastructure policy affect who benefits.
WarMajor conflicts—from the Revolution and Civil War to the World Wars and beyond—have redirected the economy, politics, and civil liberties. Wars often accelerate technological and social change while provoking debate over causes and consequences. Veterans’ experiences and memory shape national identity.
Historical textual analysis: approaches and strategies[edit | edit source]
When reviewing an historical document, consider:[edit | edit source]
date / historical context
author
publisher
audience
author point of view & purpose
Review fine print, sources, in cartoons anything written, and apply your PRIOR KNOWLEDGE[edit | edit source]
what do you know about the period?
what came before it?
what followed?
what events, periods, persons may be compared or contrasted to it?
abolitionismthe movement to end slavery; abolition, abolitionist; see also emancipation
aristocraticof high social status, usually conferred by birth; note "titles of nobility" are banned by US Constitution
authoritythe source and/or exercise of power; as a source of power, authority indicates the legitimacy of its exercise ("by what authority?"); as the exercise of power, authority is its methods (how power is used), person (who or what exercises the power) and its extents and limits
blue collar v white collarblue collar =workers, in reference to the blue "coveralls" laborers may wear (originally clothing made of denim or coarse fabric); white = reference to the collars of a white dress shirt
catalysta person, event, or condition that triggers or otherwise makes something happen; catalysts bring about change.
cessionleaving the Union or a state
chain migrationmigration that follows existing personal, usually family, or other connections, such as a job skill or labor organization, thus a "chain"
class warfarepolitical posturing by emphasizing differences between social and economic classes; historically, a Democratic political strategy
de facto v. de jure"in fact" v. "in law"; de facto means something that exists in practice; whereas de jure means a practice according to law; examples of de facto v. de jure conditions include continued discrimination after bans on legal racial segregation, continued use of alcohol despite its legal ban under the 19th amendment, etc.
delegate (as noun and verb)n: a representative to a political body; v. to assign or pass along a task, power, or sovereignty
democracya form of government decidied by majority vote; a "pure democracy" would make every governmental or collective decision by a simple majority vote; the U.S. form of government has democratic elements constrained by republican structures of divided and limited government, and certain requirements for "super majority" votes (in the US Senate and for Constitutional amendment
direct taxa tax that is applied "directly" to persons as opposed to an activity or material; the income tax is a "direct" tax, which required Constitutional amendment to allow under the law
disenfranchisednot allowd to vote; can be de jure (legal voting restrictions) or de facto (forcible, if illegal, voting restrictions
dissentto disagree or protest, usually in terms of a standing law or political opinion; in the Supreme Courts, a "dissenting" judge disagrees with the marjoity opinion
domesticrelated to national as opposed to overseas or international affairs
duties taxes on importation or sale of goods; "duties" usually refers to taxes on imported goods; note that "duties" constituted the largest source of revenue for the federal government up until the mid-20th century, when the personal and corporate income taxes were imposed at higher rates than when first introduced in 1914; after the Civil War up until that time, import duties constituted about half of federal revenues, with excise taxes (taxes on sale of certain goods) were about 40% of federal revenue; prior to the Civil War, import duties were the source of up to 90% of federal income; note the federal government also received significant revenue from land sales, mineral rights, etc.)
Electoral CollegeThe Constitutional "college" or assembly of "electors" who represent the states to cast votes for to decide presidential elections. Voters in each state cast ballots for a candidate and the winner of each state's election is assigned to electors who represent that candidate. The number of electors per each state is determined by that states total representation in the Congress with one elector for each member of the House or Senate. The winner of the Electoral College vote must win a majority of the votes, otherwise the election will be decided by the House of Representatives.
emancipationthe act or process of freeing slaves (abolition)
embargo to block or restrict access to something (Embargo Act of 1807, which restricted trade with Britain and France); embargo is usually in reference to a practical or legal exclusion of trade, or of a physical "naval blockade", such as the US embargo of Cuba in 1926; a naval blockade may be considered an act of war
equity the notion that the laws must be applied equally; also a reference to capital ownership of a company (stock ownership = "equity"
excise taxa tax upon a certain good, product or transaction
federalin reference to the central, or "federal" government, and as opposed to state or local governments
franchise= "the vote"; thus "disenfranchised" means to not have the right to vote
Frontier Thesis (or Turner's Thesis)the late 19th century historian Frederic Jackson Turner proposed his "Frontier Thesis" in 1893 that argued that the "frontier", or push westward by Americans from the colonial period onward, greatly defined American social and political cultures, especially in terms of American individualism, egalitarianism, democracy, and pragamatism (seeking practical solutions); the Thesis argues that these cultural qualities developed uniquely in the U.S. as opposed to being imported from Europe
hegemony/hegomoniccontrol or rule of another country without direct military occupation; also used to describe the power of one body or person over another without directly managing that body or person ("hegemonic power"
imperialism acts by a country of overseas conquest, possession or imposition; US imperialism started with the Spanish-American War (1896); U.S. foreign policy after WWII hgas been seen as "imperialistic" in the sense that it imposes U.S. policies or desires upon other nations; see "hegemony"
indemnity in international affairs, money paid as compensation for some loss, especially following a war
infringe / infringement to violate, or undermine, especially in law
intolerance unwillingness to accept views, beliefs or persons different from oneself; in international affairs; the "Intolerable Acts" was a name given by the American colonists who opposed a series of Acts of Parliament called by England the "Coercive Acts"
laissez-faire from French for "to leave alone"; used as reference to government non-intervention in the economy, usually regarding corporations; "laissez-faire" has a negative connotation, whereas supporters of government non-interference in the economy refer to that point of view as "libertarian"
landmark court casea Supreme Court case that substantially changes prior cases or becomes a new precedent; landmark cases frequently adjust or create new legal principles
legitimacyunderstood as in accordance with accepted rules or standards. Public officials (judges, legislatures, presidents) who are considered "legitimate" are understood to acting according to the rules of their offices; those who do not may be considered "illegitimate" (not legitimate), though it may be due to political or popular opinion and not legal rules or standards.
mercantilismcolonial mother-country policy of controlling or regulating trade so as to require that colonial possessions only purchase from and sell to the mother country, with the aim to maintain a trade-surplus for the mother country; the philosophy was that economic "stakeholders" were home-country farms, businesses, and land owners, and therefore colonial holdings were to serve and benefit those interests
nativism "ethnocentric" belief in the dominant ethnicity and culture of a nation, particularly as regards immigration (called "chauvanisme" in French)
nullify / nullification the theory or assertion that since the Constitution is a "compact" (agreement) of the states, the authority to withhold that agreement or parts of it remains with the states; thus states can "nullify" or annul (delete, erase, disregard) a or part of a federal law; nullification violates the "Supremacy Clause" of the Constitution (found in Article VI that states that all federal law will be "supreme" over state law); the "Nullification Crisis" occurred in 1832 when South Carolina refused to abide to the federal tariff laws of 1828 and 1832; other nullification crises include the 1798 Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions, which asserted the power of nullification over Adams-era and just before the outbreak of the Civil War when some southern states passed laws "nullifying" federal laws, and in the 1950s when several southern states refused to desegregate public schools and passed laws refusing to follow the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision (1954)
Old World v. New World "Old" = Europe; "New" = Americas
politicalfrom Greek polis for "city"; governance or organization of a group of people; operates at all levels, as in local, state or national "politics"
political expediencyexpedience is cutting corners, compromising principles to achieve a short term outcomes; political expediency comes of politicians / leaders who act against their stated beliefs in order to achieve a cerain outcome; may be seen as hypocrisy, but all politicians must engage in expedients at some point, and students may identify these in analysis of causes and effects
popular sovereignty1850s political stance that held that territories and states should accept or not accept the practice of slavery based upon a vote of the people (i.e., "popular"; sovereignty = rule
precedent the judicial practice of adhereing to prior or "preceding" decisions; decisions that change "precedent" are considered "landmark"
powerpower is exercised and/or expressed through 1) authority (source of power); 2) legitimacy (legality or justification for the power; 3) sovereignty (ultimate or "supreme" source of power, its heirarchies (levels) and ability to exercise power; power that has no authority has no legitimacy; power that is legitimate but has no authority is not sovereign, etc.
prohibitionmovement to ban the sale and consumption of alcohol; "prohibition" may also be used regarding banning of other items, manufacture, or consumption; the period of "Prohibition" started in 1920 with the 18th Amendment and ended in 1932 with the 21st Amendment; the "temperance" movement was the activism to achieve prohibition
republica state (in the sense of a nation) that is governed democratically through representative democracy, usually with divided authorities, such as legislative, executive and judicial branches of the government; in the U.S. republican governance also divides power between the federal government and the states; across U.S. history, the republican form of governance has changed in terms of citizen participation, starting with white male landowners over the age of 21 (generally), extending to freed male slaves, to women, and by lowering the voting age to 18; republicanism has also changed with the growth of federal over state powers
"Republican motherhood" the Early Republic belief that the role of a patriotic mother was to raise their sons as good "republicans," i.e. members of a self-governed society (not the political party)
republican principles"republicanism" is a form of self-government through democratically elected representatives; the "republican principles," therefore, are those ideals exercised to affect republican (representative) self-government; republicanism is also associated with divided and limited government
statea sovereign political unit; in the "United States" the states are independent political entities that have yielded certain powers or sovereignties to the central government; internationally, a "state" is a country or nation (thus the "State Department" as the executive department that represents the country)
states rightssovereignty and powers of states; the idea that the federal government should not "infringe" upon the rights of states; the idea of "states rights" has evolved over time with greater acceptance of larger federal sovereignty
segregation racial separation, either de facto or de jure; Plessy v. Furgusen affirmed in law de facto segregation; Brown v Board of Education prohibited legal segregation in schools, but did not end its de facto practice in policy and implementation across the states
socialism an economic and political theory that the state (the government) should own the "means of production" (farming, industry, etc.); "socialists" across time have varied in the degree to which they call for state-control of different segments of the economy and society; modern Western (European/American) socialism generally appeals to government control of social services and health care industries.
sovereigntyrule or "rule over"; government authority or rule is called its "soveriegnty", thus a monarch is also called a "soveriegn"
suffrage the right to vote; the "suffrage movement" was the political movement to secure voting rights for women; "suffragettes" were women activitists who promoted the right for women to vote, such as Susan B. Anthony
tariff taxes on imports; also called "duties"
temperance movement social and political movement to ban production and use of alcohol
two-party system
unalienable not divisible, cannot be taken away; thus in the Declaration, "unalienable rights" are those that people are born with and cannot be taken away; unalienable rights can be violated, but under the theory of "natural law" any violation of those rights is illegitimate; note: "unalienable" is same as "inalienable"
unintended consequenceeffects of a policy, decision or action that are unexpected or unanticipated
United Statesso-called because of the "union" of independent states that joined to form a single country; it is useful to note that prior to the Civil War the nation was referred to as "these United States", in the plural, whereas after the Civil War it changed to "the United States", in the singular, reflecting a dramatic change in the self-conception of the nation and union
US Imperialism"imperialism is one country controlling other places or countries, either through military invasion or economic, social or political control; the age of US Imperialism starts with the Spanish-American War of 1898 in which the US seizes Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines (and other islands) and uses those possessions for military, political and economic advantage, especially in competition with European powers; however, we can also think of Briitsh colonial US expulsion of Native American tribes, especially in the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the Indian Wars of the 1860s-1880s.
western expansionwe can look upon the American historical experience as one of ongoing westward, or western, expansion: 1st spreading westward from the Atlantic coastal plains, then over the Appalachians into the Ohio Valley, then into the Mississippi Valley and across the Mississippi River, then across the Great Plains, up to the Rocky Mountains, then expansion to Califoria, especially following the 1849 Gold Rush; then connecting the nation through netwards of railroads and telegraph; then overseas expansion (Spanish-American War) and intervention (WW's I and II) and spread of American political, cultural and economic activity and influence across the world into the modern world of instantaneous connectivity
Anglow-Powhatan Wars (1610-1646)series of three conflicts, 1610-1614, 1622-1632, 1644-1646, consisting of Indian raids, hostage-taking, and English reprisal attacks, starting at Jamestown, and between the English and the Powhattan tribes and their leadership; the Powhattan goal was to drive the English out of Virginia entirely; the Treaty of 1846 ended hostilities and defined the extent of English possessions from the coast upwards the navigable portions of the York and other rivers
Beaver Wars, 1609-1701 (French/Dutch)
Jamestown Massacre, 1622
Pequot War (1634-1638)
King Philip's War, 1675-1678Also Metacomb's War
King William's War, 1689-1897
Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713
Yamasee War, 1715-1717frontier/ land disputes and conflicts between settlers and Native Americans in the Carolinas
Chickasaw Wars, 1721-1763Chickasaw tribes supported by the British v. French & allied tribes along the Mississippi Valley over access to the Mississippi River; the wars ended with conclusion of the French-Indian Wars
Bacon's Rebellion 1676violent political dispute over colonial protection of frontier settlers and lands; see below
Regulator Insurrection, 1766-1771ongoing defiance and rebellion of rural North Carolina colonists who objected to taxation and control from the eastern capital of North Carolina, New Bern; the term "Regulators" was chosen to emphasize that the movement wanted "regular" order of local governance and control
Whiskey Rebellion, 1791-1794
Fries's Rebellion, 1799-1800Tax revolt by Pennyslvania Dutch farmers
New York Slave Revolt of 1712New York held the most slaves of all the colonies as of 1712, but for urban not agricultural labor; there were many freed slaves, as well, who lived in proximity to one another, so slave discontent was driven by access to and sharing with freed slaves and people in general; the NY Slave Revolt makes for an interesting comparison v. other, southern, slave revolts in that they were not isolated by agricultural conditions and plantation structures
Stono Rebellion, 1739South Carolina, largest slave rebellion with 25 English and 35-50 slaves killed; led by an educated slave who knew to take advantage of planters' Sunday worship gatherings when they were unsuspecting and unarmed; this and other southern slave revolts were the product of horrible living conditions but growing slave populations who were able to organize while isolated from free whites; following the Stono Rebellion, SC passed laws requiring more whites per black slaves on plantations and limiting slave access to their own food and economic production
Quasi-War, 1798-1800series of naval battles of the East coast and in the Caribbean, primarily over trade and other diplomatic tensions betwen England and France, and the U.S. and both
First Barbary War, 1801-1805In response to attacks and hostage-taking of American and other ships since the 1780s by North African "Barbary Pirates", raiders sponsored by by local Ottoman rules, the Jefferson administration sent warships to end the harrassment and cease the practice of paying "tribute" for release of vessels and sailors
Second Barbary War, 1815after ongoing harrassment of US ships by North African raiders, US Navy defeated the Algerian fleet and ended the long-standing problem with the 'Barbery Pirates"
Panama Revolution, 1903Teddy Roosevelt Administration sent US warships to Panama in support of revolutionaries who were seeking independence from Columbia; Roosevelt did so because a prior agreement with Columbia to give the U.S. rights to build a canal across Panama (the "Panama Isthmums") had fallen apart, and by supporting the revolutionaries, Roosevelt secured access to the lands for the canal
Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804series of wars of that ended in Haitian independence from France; the impact upon the U.S. was that without control of Haiti, New Orleans became less important to France, which also needed the revenue from the Louisiana Purchase</li)
The pre-Columbian period is that period prior to the Spanish contact with the Americas starting in 1492. Having been peopled by hunter-gatherers during the late states of the last Ice Age, the Americas were subsequently isolated from the rest of the world (there was some continued migration back and forth between modern Alaska and Siberia). While there was contact with Viking explorers along the coast of northeastern North America, there was no continual European or other presence until Columbus.
As a result, the societies of the Americas evolved independently of the rest of the world. That is, they started with the same beliefs and technologies of hunter-gatherers, but developed from there entirely on their own, developing agriculture and complex governance in certain areas, principally Mesoamerica and Peru. When Columbus arrived, the Americas had not yet developed metallurgy, and because the original inhabitants had hunted them to extinction rather than domesticating them, as happened in Eurasia c. 3000 BC, they had no horses.
The "Columbian Exchange" was an uniquely accelerated moment of cultural, political, economic, technological, and biological exchange that was devastating to and/or massively transforming of the people of the Americas, who had never encountered many of the Afro-Eurasian diseases, technologies and political forms.
Algonquianlargest language group of North American tribes who occupied the northeastern coast, and central-east Canada; Algonquian tribes traded with the French and aligned with them against English colonists and their Iroquois allies, who were their traditional enemies
Cahokia Mississippian culture city and mounds area located near modern St. Louis, MO; held 10-15,000 residents around 1100 AD and held perhaps 40,000 residents in the immediate region; if considered as a city in its entirety (doubtful), it was the largest city in United States region until 1780s Philadelphia)
Hopewell tradition Ohio Valley cultures of the Woodland Period that were interconnected by trade and shared cultural traits, such as mound building
indigenous native to a place; original inhabitants
Iroquois North American tribes and linguistic group who originally occupied lands surrounding the St. Lawrence River and Lakes Ontario and Erie, as well as parts of upstate New York and Virginia; the Iroquois Confederacy arose after European contact, as tribes expanded and combined into the "Five Nations" who controlled central New York, Pennsylvania and the western slopes of the Appalachian Mountains
Iroquois Confederacy starting in the mid-15th century, just prior to European contact, Iroquois tribes started a loose "confederacy," or federation, of independent, usually linguistically related tribes who joined politically for common defense, land organization, etc. versus enemy tribes; into the European colonial period, the Iroquois Confederacy strengthened through trade and technological acquisition; the Iroquois Confederacy, or "Five Tribes" consisted of the e Oneida, Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca; each tribe was governed by groups of "sachems," or local chiefs
Mississippian period/ culture 800-1600 AD, period of extensive maize production and mound building across the Mississippi valley, including moderate urbanization and centralized rule
Mound Builders starting 500 BC with early Woodland cultures that exercised social and political cohesion to the extent of building massive earthwork "mounds" that served religious or ceremonial purposes; latter Woodland period mounds could be massive
Navajo possibly from 2nd wave migrations which had settled in Canada, Navajo migrated around 1100 AD to the southwest where they competed with the declining Pueblo populations, and from whom the Navajo learned to farm; they later adopted herding originating from the Spanish
Pueblo culture Southwestern American culture that populated modern New Mexico ; "pueblo" means "village" (the Navajo called them "Anasazi" for "Ancient Enemy"); Pueblos built cliff-dwellings and complex adobe (clay) houses; traded as far as Mexico
Plains Indians tribes that occupied the Great Plains as hunter-gatherers hunting buffalo and living in tepees; introduction of maize led to some settlement; post-Columbian introduction of horses in late 17th and 18th century led to increased range of hunting and warfare, after which the Plains Indians became highly associated with horses thereafter
reciprocal relations Native American cultural and economic structures were largely based on reciprocal relations that shared territory, land use and labor; however, those relations were largely tied to linguistic and ethnic alliances that otherwise competed and warred with one another when in contact or conflict over resources; the reciprocal concept of land use, especially was not shared by European settlers who employed notions of private property and land ownership, which led to mistrust and conflict between indigenous and colonial populations
"Three Sisters" crops maize (corn), beans and squash were the primary agricultural food sources for Central and North American pre-Columbian peoples; the crops were planted next to one another for their compatibility (corn provided stalks for beans to climb; the beans stabilized the stalks during storms; large squash leaves provided shade to preserve ground moisture, and beans produced nitrogen which helps maize grow
Woodland Period Eastern and central North American indigenous cultures that thrived from 1000 BC to 1000 AD; period marked by trade, cultural exchange, population growth and linguistic variation; they were mostly hunter-gatherers but with some but not extensive maize production, especially in the later periods
Evidence of human activity of Yana River area in Siberia (regions not under the ice sheets due to lack of precipitation)
Near Baltic Sea
26,000-23,000
Last Glacial Maximum (greatest extent of ice sheets
24,000
Footprints dating
13,000-3,000
Peopling of the Americas
called the "first wave" (of three); most indigenous Americans in South, Central and North America are descended from these groups
12,000
Clovis culture introduced in North America
6,000
domestication of maize (corn) in Mesoamerica
600-1140 AD
Pueblo culture thrives in American Southwest; moved from cliff dwellings to complex villages, 700-900 AD;
droughts starting 1130 led to decline and abandonment of Chaco Canyon
1000-1350
Mississippian culture; decline in urbanization starting 1250, possibly as result of disease, warfare, deforestation, and climate change (Little Ice Age droughts)
1325
Aztec capital established at Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City)
caraveltrans-oceanic sailing ship developed by the Portuguese that allowed for long voyages and the ability to "cut" into the wind for maneuverability; since they were small and had a shallow draft (didn't go deep into the water), caravels were especially useful for exploring coastlines, bays and up rivers; into the "triangle trade" period, caravels were replaced by larger the "carrack" and, later, the "galleon"
Henry Hudsonnot an important name to know for the AP test, but Hudson exemplifies the initial British and Dutch purposes of exploration: he desperately wanted to find a way to Asia, but kept running into more land; he sailed in 1607 for the Dutch, and claimed modern New York for them; then sailed for the Birith in 1610 and made claims in Canada ("Hudson Bay" which he was convinced was the "northwest passage" to Asia)
conquistadorSpanish explorers and adventurers who conquered parts of the Americas, particularly Hernán Cortés (Mexico, 1519-21) and Francisco Pizarro (Peru, 1532)
St. Lawrence Riverthe St. Lawrence River passageway that was an important pre-colonial trade route that explorer Jacques Cartier in 1532 claimed for France and that was a significant part of French trade and colonial possessions in "New France"; the St. Lawrence River connects to the Great Lakes and thus provided trade access to the Ohio Valley
asiento""asiento" means "contract; the "Asiento de Negros" was a trade agreement between Britain and Spain over rights to slave trade passages controlled by Spain
De Las CasasSpanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas wrote in 1542 "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies" documenting Spanish abuse of Native Americans
casta (system)social, legal, and political hierarchy in the Spanish colonies based on ethnicity, race, and mixing therefore; caste system from top to bottom was Peninsulares (born in Spain), Criolles (born in colonies of Spanish descent), Mestizos (mixed Spanish/Indigenous); Indios (indigenous); Mulatos (mixed Spanish and African); Zambos (mixed indigenous and African)
encomiendafrom encomendar for to "entrust", a land and labor grant as reward to conquistadores for conquests on behalf of Spain; the encomenderos thus claimed large lands and plantations using enslaved native labor; the encomienda system incentivized Spanish conquest and expansion across the world; the system was outlawed in 1542 when Natives were granted limited Spanish citizenship (i.e., "subjects" of the Spanish king); it was replaced by the repartiamento system
Florida (or Spanish Florida)After the French-Indian War (1763), Spain traded Florida for Louisiana Territories west of the Mississippi (Britain returned Havana Cuba and Manilla, Philippines, which it had seized during the Seven Years War); Britain ceded Florida back to Spain after the American Revolution; significant numbers of Americans moved into the western Florida panhandle, which the U.S. annexed in 1910 following declaration by those settlers of the "Free and Independent Republic of West Florida. After the 1817/18 First Seminole War (led by Andrew Jackson), the US took control of most of Florida, and Spain ceded the entire territory in the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty in exchange for an indemnity of $5 milllion in American claims against Spain. Upon independence, Mexico refused to recognize the Treaty, but it was mostly upheld in the 1828 "Treaty of Limits" between the US and Mexico
haciendafrom the verb hacer for "to make or do", Spanish landholding system of large agricultural or other commercial operations, imported to the colonies as plantations or mines using Native American labor
Mit'a (Inca)pre-colonial Inca system of forced labor and tribute of conquered peoples; Mit'a labor built roads, fortifications, military service, worked farms, esp. for terrace building; was source of Incan revenue and political control
New Laws of 1542replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512 that were supposed to protect the rights of the native peoples; the New Laws ended the encomienda system by outlawing hereditary control; the New Laws met great and at times violent protest by the encomederos; the New Laws marked more direct control of the colonies by Spanish King Charles I (who was also Holy Roman Emperor Charles V); the intervention by Charles may be usefully compared to that of various English monarchs
JesuitsCatholic order, "Society of Jesus", whose presence was largely for evangelization of native peoples; however, while seeking their conversion, the Jesuits did not seek to Europeanize the Native Americans and instead sought to integrate Christianity within indigenous culture and traditions; this also led the Jesuits to act on genuine concern for the welfare of the people they were trying to convert; their approach is called the "middle ground" between colonial attempts to conquer and seek labor and land
Pueblo Revolt1680 rebellion by the Pueblo (in modern New Mexico/ AZ), and led by Papé, for maltreatment by the Spanish, who had outlawed their religious practices, forced labor, resource extraction (maize and textiles)
repartimientofrom reparto for "distribution", the Spanish system implemented in 1542 of regulated and forced labor that replaced direct slavery of Native Americans
Saint Augustinestarted 1565, Spanish colonial settlement along the northeastern coast of Florida; in 1693 Spanish King Charles II issued a Royal Decree providing freedom for runaway slaves who converted to Catholicism, and the region served as a sanctuary for escaped slaves from the Carolinas
SepúlvedaSpanish philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda who in 1550/51 debated in writing De las Casas over legitimacy of Spanish colonization and treatment of Native Americans; Sepúlveda argued the superior Spanish culture justified the conquest of "savage" natives and forced conversion to Christianity; his views were shared by later Americans who justified westward expansion and maltreatment of Native tribes)
Spanish social hierarchies (terms){{{2}}}
Treaty of Tordesillas1494 agreement negotiated by Pope Alexander VI that divided New World holdings between Spain and Portugal bsed on a "line of demarcation," a north-south longitude line that divided South America between Spanish and Portuguese holdings (establishing Portuguese Brasil)
Beaver War 1600s conflicts between the French and their Algonquin allies and the Iroquois League that opposed them
couriers de boisFrench "runners" sent to explore and live with local inhabitants across the Great Lakes region
fur tradethe principal object of exploration and trade for Dutch and French, and also some English, colonial enterprises; beaver and otter fur was most desirable for European markets, which brought significant revenue to the colonies; the fur trade was a lucrative source of goods and tribal power among Native Americans, bringing guns, knives, rum, household items along with the instability of new economic and social pressures of the trade relations
New Amsterdamnow Manhattan, a Dutch city established in 1626 at head of the Hudson River and which served as an important port for Dutch fur trade and trade and piracy across the Atlantic Coast and Caribbean; Dutch holdings, called New Netherlands, included lower New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Delaware, all of which were ceded to Britain in 1664 (briefly retaken by the Dutch in 1673/4
New FranceFrench colonial possessions in North America, from the St. Lawrence waterway to the Great Lakes and along the Mississippi River to New Orleans; northern New France was primarily focused on fur trade, although cities were established with French migrants; the French explored the Great Lakes, which is why Champlain, Detroit, LaSalle, St. Croix, Duluth, etc. have French names.
Middle Passagerefers to "passage" or transoceanic shipment of slaves across the Atlantic; mortality rate of slaves on the Middle Passage was 12.5%; a total of 15.3 million Africans were sent across it to the Americas, most of whom were sent to the Caribbean and Brazil
Olaudah Equiano former slave who in 1789 wrote a memoir of hs experiences as a slave, including his childhood in Africa, the Atlantic crossing and life as a slave, which deeply impacted British views on the cruelty of slavery; Equiano was purchased by a British Naval officer and ended up under a Philadelphia merchant who allowed him to purchase his freedom; Equiano became a successful merchant and adventurer
seasoning campscentralized destinations in the Caribbean for new African slave arrivals to "season", or prepare, them for new conditions; about 1/3rd of slaves who arrived to these camps died their first year there, mostly of dysentery due to the horrible conditions
triangle tradethe geographic pattern of slave-trade exchange between Europe (selling manufactured goods, especially arms, which African states used to acquire more slaves), African coastal states (selling slaves) and the Americas (selling slave-produced products, especially sugar, molasses, rice, rum, and tobacco
Timeline of European exploration and colonization of the Americas[edit | edit source]
Britain held colonial possessions in the Caribbean region, as well as the thirteen colonies and portions of Canada
following smaller wars and the worldwide French-Indian War (Seven Years War), Britain sequentially took France's Canadian possessions as well as its landholdings between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.
Levels of British control of the colonies rose and fell according to domestic British politics and its international priorities.
The American Revolution was largely the result of the exercise of direct control of colonial affairs that followed the French-Indian War.
Appalachian Mountainsrunning north-south along the eastern coast of the 13 colonies, the Appalachians isolated the east coast and formed a natural barrier to western expansion; the Proclamation of 1863 unsuccessfully barred colonial settlement west of the Appalachians
Bacon’s Rebellion1676 Virginia rebellion that briefly occupied the colonial at Jamestown over a dispute over protection of settlers who had moved into Indian lands; Bacon, a wealthy landowner, had let a militia to protect frontier settlers from Indian raids, which the governor opposed. Legislators passed "Bacon's Laws" to authorize colonial militia to protect settlers (who were moving into lands east of the Appalachians; Bacon's rebellion marks one of many disputes across US history between urban political and commercial elites and settlers and rural inhabitants)
Lord BaltimoreGeorge Calvert, 1st Baron of Baltimore, a Catholic British politician was given a charter by King Charles I for the proprietary colony of Maryland (and earlier in southern Newfoundland; Baltimore's "proprietary" colony protected religious freedom for Christians; Virginia disputed the borders, and sent anti-Catholic agitators and Puritans to Maryland who ended up taking over the state in anti-Catholic uprisings; Maryland and Virginia actually fought a short war over Maryland's Kent Island in the Chesapeake Bay
Deismbelief that God can be understood rationally; deism rejects "revelation" (Scripture, i.e, the Bible, and the "living God") and asserts an impersonal God or supreme being; deists followed Enlightenment thought that the world can be understood through reason alone
Jonathan Edwardsa New England preacher of pietism
the Great Awakeningfollowing a 1739 tour of the colonies by English Methodist preacher George Whitefield, a religious "awakening" or "revival" based upon Protestant principles of individual relationships with God and "pietism," or strict adherence to Biblical strictures of behavior; Whitefield's visit followed Jonathan Edwards' movement and was enhanced by advances in the printing industry, which spread his sermons, biography, etc., including by Benjamin Franklin; the Great Awakening was possible due to greater exchange between the colonies and development of the printing industry. The Great Awakening influenced people at the personal level and included women who preached publicly; established churches objected to the "New Lights". Students should connect the Great Awakening to democratic and reform principles, especially equality, self-governance, religious freedom, freedom of conscience, personal morality.
headright systemland grants in exchange for bringing labor to the colonies, usually in the form of indentured servitude; was started in 1618 and most employed in Virginia
House of Burgesses
Anne HutchinsonEnglish Puritan who brought "Antinomianism" ("against the law") to Massachusetts in 1630s, a form of anabaptism that believed that salvation was not through "works" as well as "personal revelation"; Puritans believed that one's behavior marked one's state of grace (salvation) and bad outcomes, such as the stillborn birth of a follower, Mary Dyer, marked judgment by God; they jailed Hutchinson over her teachings; she left w/ /supporters for Rhode Island where Roger Williams welcomed them
indentured servitudecontractual servitude, or slavery for a set period of time; generally, indentured servants paid debts, such as passage across the Atlantic, or other debts, with their service; families might "sell" children into indentured servitude; demand for early colonial farm labor in the middle colonies was filled through indentured servitude
Jamestown
redemptioner systema form a indentured servitude used by German immigrants to pay for passage to the New World but on terms set upon arrival, not departure, which gave them more say over their conditions
Joint Stock Company
King Philip’s War, 1675-1678"King Philip" was the adopted English name of Wampanoag chief Metacom, who reversed his father's policy of accommodating English presence in New England; he led raids on settlements, to which the English retaliated; the war was conducted by colonial forces only, and thus gave them a sense of self-sufficiency outside of British protection
"Lost Colony"an early Virginia settlement that was abandoned, leaving a small group who disappeared
Massachusetts Bay Colony
migration push/ pull factors"push" factors are those that motivate people to emigrate (move away from); "pull" factors are those that motivate people to immigrate into a certain place; key push factors in England include religious persecution, poverty, primogeniture, crime, rising population; key pull factors to the 13 colonies include land, trade, adventurism, religious freedom, and general social, political and economic opportunities
Native American & English relationsstudents should explore cultural differences and differences of perception between Native Americans and English settlers; as well as impact of those relations, including disease, economic, tribal organization, land use, etc.
Navigation Acts, 1663, 1673, 1696
New England town meetings
William Penn Quaker English noble who in 1681 was granted extensive landholdings in the mid-Atlantic ("the Province of Pennsylvania") to pay debts due to his father from King Charles II. As a "propriety" colony, Penn and his descendants ruled Pennsylvania until the American Revolution (and when Delaware was created as a separate state); Penn organized the government under the "Frame of Government of Pennsylvania," an important document in colonial self-governance, granting legislative powers to an assembly made up of "inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors" of the colony; the Penn family was largely an "absentee landlord" (not living there) and profited from rents and taxes collected on their lands, which was resented by residents, especially non-Quaker immigrants
Pequot War, 1636-37Massachusets: the Pequot fought and lost to English settlers and their allies, Narragansett and Mohegan tribes; ended Pequot resistance to English settlement expansion
Puritan/sChristian sect that opposed the Anglican Church and believed in strict adherence to biblical stricture (rules); Puritans largely settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, although many ventured into southern colonies
Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713
John Rolfe
salutary neglecta phrase coined during the Revolutionary period by British politician and philosopher Edmund Burke who argued that the "neglect" of the colonies exercised by the British government prior to the French-Indian War was "salutary", or healthy; and that the post-French-Indian War interventions in the colonies were not productive for either side; Burke was sympathetic to the Colonial cause, but did not overtly align himself with them
slave codeslocal and colonial rules and laws that limited the rights and economic liberties of slaves and free blacks; the codes were first imposed in Barbados and Jamaica, and first adopted in Virginia and South Carolina, then spread to other colonies; the codes limited rights of blacks and reduced or annulled penalties on whites who abused or murdered blacks; restrictions on slaves and blacks included not recognizing baptism, prohibiting teaching slaves to read, and limiting their movement; the British government did not impose any slave codes upon the colonies, although it allowed them in the colonies
John Smith
Roger WilliamsFounder of Rhode Island; established religious tolerance
yeomanindependent farmers and landowners, who lived and farmed independently but without amassing great wealth; the "yeoman society" contrasted with the legacies of Old World feudal structures in which great landowners had tenant farmers; the yeoman ideal was independence, land ownership and local self-government, especially in New England; in Virginia the yeoman farmers contrasted with and political opposed plantation owners
the immediate cause of the war was the growing presence of English colonials across the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Valley
the French and their Indian allies opposed these settlements
1753-54: Virginia militia expeditions sent to challenge French expansion in the Ohio Valley via building of a series of forts
May 1754: fighting breaks out at Ft. Duquesne and Ft. Necessity
a site of considerable contention was Fort Duquesne at present-day Pittsburg, as the location was at the confluence of two major rivers leading into the Ohio River
sparked by an unsuccessful British and colonial attacks on French forts in Pennsylvania
in 1753, George Washington 1753 delivered a message to the French at another Fort in Pennsylvania demanding French evacuation from the region
on July 3, 1754, as a colonel in the Virginia Militia, Washington led an attack upon the French Ford Necessity; he lost and had to surrender
British regular Army, along with colonial militias (and including Washington), reorganized and attacked another French fort, Fort Duquesne on Sept. 14, 1758, and also lost
there were 500 French and Indian soldiers
and 400 British regulars and 350 colonial militia
the British eventually took Ft. Duquesne in 1758 (renaming it Ft. Pitt), and the focus of the war moved toward Canada and the St. Lawrence River waterways, particularly the French city Quebec.
the American-sparked war turned global as Britain and France squared off against one another and their allies in Continental Europe, the Caribbean, Africa, India and China
after going well for France and its allies at first, the British scored significant victories starting 1758 and, especially, in 1759 ("Annus Mirabillus") and 1762.
depleted financially and in resources, both France and England met at Paris to negotiate an end to the War, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which divided up colonial holdings, giving Britain control of North America east of the Mississippi.
the French-Indian War and the British government response to its aftermath set the conditions for the American Revolution.
French and British positions at the start of the War British North America and New France and Allies. This Map also shows both the Iroquois and Wabanaki Confederacies, who were both influential in the war on the British and French sides respectively.
Albany Conference, 1754or Albany Congress; at the start of the French-Indian War, a gathering of representatives of seven, northeastern colonial legislatures in Albany , New York, with the purpose to manage relations with Indian tribes and create collective defense against the French; Albany was at the time an important city but "western" in that it was not coastal; although called for by Great Britain with the specific goal of mending relations with the Iroquois Confederacy in order to fend against the French and their Indian allies, the Conference was the first convention of colonial legislatures; the Congress adopted Benjamin Franklin's "Albany Plan", but it was rejected by the British and colonial governments
Albany Plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the 1854 Albany Congress to create a central colonial government that would have powers of treaty-making, taxation, and self-defense; the Albany Plan is considered a precursor to the Articles of Confederation
Algonquian Indians with associated Great Lakes region tribes, such as the Huron, allied with the French through trade and control of trade routes; the Algonquian and allied tribes were able to disrupt British and fought against British rule (see Pontiac's Rebellion), but eventually submitted to British rule in Canada
Annus Mirabilis of 1759 "Wonderful Year" of 1759 during which the British won significant victories over France and its allies in Europe and the New World: the war started badly for Britain (even leading to fears of a French invasion of England), but under leadership of William Pitt the Elder, in 1759 Britain won battles in Germany, India, Canada capture of Quebec) and in the Caribbean(notably M). The war continued through 1762 (a second "Annus Mirabilis" for the British), at which point both sides were depleted financially and militarily, but with Britain having seized the upper hand across the globe.
Lord Dunmore Royal Governor of Virginia who, in opposition to British policy, launched militia attacks on Indians across the Appalachian Mountains (see Lord Dunmore's War)
Fort Duquesne French fort at modern Pittsburg where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join as they joint and become the Ohio River; the location provided control of trade and movement in the region that was contested by English and French colonial claims
Iroquois Confederacy allied with the British, but under pressure from constant westward push of colonials; the Iroquois were aligned with the British more to assist their attacks against their Algonquian enemies, whom they pushed westward, then for mutual benefit of trade, etc., as was the case with the French and their Indian allies
Ohio Company of 1748in 1748 the Ohio Company received Royal land grant of 200,000 acres in the Ohio Valley, which included parts of modern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia; the Company was owned by wealthy Virginia planters and London Merchants, and served as an opening for American colonial expansion across the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio Valley, which was land disputed by the French; the Company was required to build and maintain a fort to protect against the French and Indians, which helped spark the French-Indian War)
Proclamation of 1763 essentially a policy statement, not a law, King George III's "proclamation" to the American colonies asserted British rule over all the pre-existing and new colonial possessions following the Treaty of Paris (1763); most importantly, the King forbade white colonials from settling to the west of the Appalachians, reserving that land for the Indians (over the next few years, treaties with the tribes allocated portions of those lands to colonial settlement); the Proclamation was largely in response to Pontiac's Rebellion; note that a factor in continued Western expansion over the mountains was that American officers were paid in "land warrants", which, like George Washington, they exercised over the mountains
Treaty of Paris of 1763 by 1762, British gains across the world forced the French to capitulate; depleted, as well the British seized the opportunity to secure new territories, while also giving up others that were less strategically important to them (such as French sugar growing colonies, which British merchants wanted to remain in French hands to maintain their monopolistic control over trade with them); in North America, Britain now controlled all lands east of the Mississippi River, including "Spanish Florida" (everything west of the MS River remained in Spanish control)
Paxton Boys Pennsylvanian settlers, mostly Scotch-Irish, who had before the war objected to Quaker leadership that refused their demands to expel Indians; after the French-Indian War, in 1763, the Paxton Boys massacred a group of Indians and seized their land; the Governor sought to prosecute them, but about 250 armed settlers marched on Philadelphia in protest; Benjamin Franklin met them along the way and arranged a truce; these settlers long resented Quaker rule of Pennsylvania, as the Quakers refused to protect settlers against Indian attack, all the while Penn-family rule was more concerned with land ownership and "rents" than with the interests of the settlers)
William PittBritish Cabinet minister and leader who led Britain to victory in the Seven Years War; Pitt was Prime Minister, 1766-1768, and, growing old and soon lost power; Pitt defended British powers over the colonies but argued that the Stamp Act was unjust and illegitimately imposed "internal taxes" on the colonies; his opposition to the Act led to its repeal
Regulatorssimilar to the Paxton Boys, rural, "western" (west of the coast) settlers in South Carolina, mostly Scottish and English, who demanded land, lower taxes, and greater representation in the colony's Assembly; during the French-Indian War, these settlers fought Cherokee tribes mostly for land, and organized to assert their rights through "vigilantism" (citizen policing/militia without public authority)
the "American Revolution" refers generally to the period between the French-Indian War and, either the breakout (1775/76) or end of the Revolutionary War (1781/83)
the war itself is called "The Revolutionary War"
the logic for the terminology is that the pre-War period was "revolutionary" in the sense that the colonists went from identifying as "Englishmen" (subjects of the King of England) to an independent "American" people;
their choices, rebellions, self-identity, philosophy, etc. went through a "revolutionary" change
"revolution" is from Latin revolvere for "turn, roll back" and in its political sense means a "great change in affairs" or "overthrow of an established political order"
students will be expected to evaluate the origins, causes and consequences of the American Revolution
and, less importantly but expected nonetheless, of the events and outcomes of the Revolutionary War
Influence of Enlightenment thought and thinkers[edit | edit source]
Enlightnmentphilosophical movement that sought to explain reality through observation and logic; the movement was anti-clerical and largely (not entirely) anti-Catholic; Enlightenment ideas include notions of natural law, equality, self-governance, education, and individual rights;
John LockeScottish Englightenment thinker (1632-1704) whose ideas deeply influenced the American Revolution; Locke held that people held "natural rights" and it was the role of government to protect them, and, in exchange for that protection, the role of the people to obey the government; he called this arrangement "the social contract"
Montesquieu
natural rights especially as definted by Locke, the idea that people are born with inherent or "natural" rights, as Locke put it, "life health, liberty [and] possessions"; the key to natural rights and natural law is that those rights and laws exist prior to establishment of governments, whose role, according to Locke, is to protect those rights; when governments create laws over and above natural law, they are called "positive law" (in the sense of positively created, not necessarily "positive" as in good); the notion of natural rights played a crucial role in the justification of the American Revolution, and the Declaration of Independence
Social contract the idea,. promoted by various Enlightenment thinkers, especially Locke that people hold inherent or natural rights and that governments are formed in order to protect those rights; under the "social contract," when government does protect those rights, the people have a duty to uphold and obey that government; (note that in the law, a contract is only valid if both parties benefit)
Boston MassacreOn March 5, 1770, British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists in Boston after being harassed by snowballs, clubs, and insults. Five colonists were killed, and the event was widely publicized by Patriot leaders as an example of British tyranny. Although later investigations were more nuanced, the incident heightened tensions and fueled revolutionary sentiment.
Boston Tea PartyOn December 16, 1773, members of the Sons of Liberty boarded ships in Boston Harbor and destroyed 342 chests of British tea in protest of the Tea Act. The Tea Act lowered tea prices but reinforced Parliament’s right to tax the colonies. Britain responded with the Coercive Acts, which helped unify colonial resistance.
Circulatory LetterIssued by the Massachusetts Assembly in 1768 and written primarily by Samuel Adams, the Circular Letter argued that the Townshend Acts were unconstitutional. It circulated among colonial legislatures, calling for unified resistance. Britain responded by ordering its withdrawal and dissolving assemblies that supported it, escalating tensions.
committees of correspondenceBeginning in 1772 in Massachusetts and spreading to other colonies, these committees created networks for sharing information about British actions. They coordinated resistance through letters, meetings, and local mobilization. The committees helped unify the colonies and laid groundwork for the Continental Congress.
Common SensePublished in January 1776 by Thomas Paine in Philadelphia, this pamphlet argued forcefully for independence and attacked monarchy as incompatible with liberty. Its clear, persuasive language reached a wide audience. The work helped shift public opinion toward supporting separation from Britain.
Continental AssociationAdopted by the First Continental Congress in 1774, the Continental Association organized a colony‑wide boycott of British goods. It established local committees to enforce non‑importation, non‑consumption, and non‑exportation agreements. The effort represented one of the first major steps toward unified colonial action.
Declaration of IndependenceApproved on July 4, 1776, the Declaration announced the colonies’ separation from Britain and outlined principles of natural rights and popular sovereignty. Drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson, it listed grievances against King George III to justify independence. It became a foundational statement of American political identity.
direct representationThe idea that citizens are represented only when they elect their own lawmakers to speak and vote on their behalf. Colonists believed legitimate taxes required direct representation, which they lacked in Parliament. This principle stood in contrast to Britain’s claim of “virtual” representation.
Enlightenment philosophersThinkers of the 17th and 18th centuries—such as John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau—who emphasized reason, natural rights, and the social contract. Their ideas shaped colonial arguments against arbitrary power and influenced American political thought. Enlightenment principles appear throughout revolutionary documents, including the Declaration of Independence.
First Continental CongressMeeting in Philadelphia in September 1774, delegates from twelve colonies gathered to coordinate a response to the Coercive Acts. They endorsed non‑importation and non‑exportation through the Continental Association and petitioned the king for redress. The meeting marked the first major step toward unified colonial governance.
Letters from a Pennsylvania FarmerWritten in 1767–68 by John Dickinson, these essays argued that Parliament could regulate trade but not impose taxes for revenue on the colonies. Widely reprinted and read, they shaped colonial resistance to the Townshend Acts. Dickinson’s moderate tone helped unify colonists across regions.
Lexington/ConcordOn April 19, 1775, British troops marched to Concord to seize colonial military stores but were confronted by militia at Lexington. Skirmishes at both towns resulted in casualties on both sides and forced the British to retreat. These events marked the outbreak of the Revolutionary War.
LoyalistColonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolution, often out of economic ties, cultural identification, or fear of disorder. Loyalists faced harassment, property seizures, and exile during the conflict. After the war, many migrated to Canada, Britain, or the Caribbean.
MinutemenMilitia members in Massachusetts and other colonies trained to respond “at a minute’s notice.” They played a crucial role in early Revolutionary battles, including Lexington and Concord. Their rapid mobilization symbolized colonial readiness to resist British force.
PatriotColonists who supported independence from Britain and opposed Parliamentary taxation and control. Patriots organized protests, formed militias, and led political debates through assemblies and committees. Their efforts culminated in the Declaration of Independence and the Revolutionary War.
social contract theoryA political idea developed by Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke and Jean‑Jacques Rousseau that government is formed by agreement among the people. If government violates natural rights, citizens have the right to alter or abolish it. This theory strongly influenced revolutionary arguments and the Declaration of Independence.
Writs of AssistanceGeneral search warrants used by British customs officials that allowed them to enter homes, ships, or warehouses to search for smuggled goods. First challenged in court in Boston in 1761, they were viewed by colonists as major violations of liberty and privacy. Anger over writs helped fuel resistance to British rule.
The laws passed by Parliament following the French-Indian War were designed for two primary purposes:
raise revenue from the colonies in order to defer the costs of the Seven Years War
exercise greater control over colonial affairs and governance
Notably, new taxes and rules marked a shift away from "mercantilism," which was designed to trade relations between the Britain and the colonies would benefit Britain. Instead, these new taxes were intended to maximize revenue, which meant many of them were actually lower than before (under the theory that lower taxes would result in greater compliance and less smuggling and corruption).
Chronology of Colonial Acts
Year
Act
1763
Sugar Act
1764
Currency Act
1765
Stamp Act
1765
Quartering Act
1766
Declaratory Act
1767
Townshend Acts
1767
Revenue Act
1773
Tea Act
1774
Quebec Act
1775
Coervice Acts
("Intolerable Acts")
Below are these acts, alphabetically. Students should memorize their dates and chronology (thus the definition list does not immediately show dates) in order to build a strong sense of causality between them and the larger context of the American Revolution as it turned into the Revolutionary War.
Coercive Acts 1774; called "Intolerable Acts" by the colonists; in response to the Boston Tea Party, George III demanded "compulsion" and submission of the colonies to British imperial authority; the Coercive Acts consisted of 4 "punitive" laws: 1) a new Quartering Act; 2) the Justice Act, which authorized capital crimes (that could result in death sentence, such as murder, treason, espionage) to be tried outside of the colonies; 3) Boston Port Act, which closed the harbor until restitution (repayment) was made for the tea lost at the Tea Party; 4) Massachusetts Government Act, which annulled its colonial charter and turned it into a "crown colony," directly ruled by the King
Currency Acts 1764: banned colonial use of paper money; colonials had been using paper money (basically an I.O.U.) to pay debts, which lowered their cost as the paper money was worth less than British currency
Declaratory Act 1766; affirmed Parliament's authority over the colonies; was passed in response to colonial resistance to the Stamp Act
Intolerable Acts 1775; the colonial term for the official title of the "Coercive Acts" (see below); the Intolerable Acts became object of outrage and the growing organization of colonial resistance
Quartering Act 1765; "quartering" means housing (room and board) passed same year as the Stamp Act, but not directly related; during the French-Indian War, the British Army was unhappy with provisioning of its troops by Colonies (i.e., not paying for quartering), although New York was more accommodating; however, in 1764, the New York Assembly did not renew its funding for quartering British troops, thinking the war was over so it was unnecessary; British commander Thomas Gage asked Parliament to require such funding, which became the Quartering Act; it offended the colonies because it created a "standing army," or a peacetime force; along with the Stamp Act and its enforcement via Vice admiralty courts, the colonies objected to the presence of the British regular army during peacetime
Quebec Act 1774; organized Province of Quebec, which included parts of the modern American Midwest; restored certain French civil law practices; removed requirement of Protestantism Oath of Allegiance and protected practice of Catholicism; colonial Americans objected vehemently to the protection of Catholicism, as well as to the extended territory of Quebec to include lands already claimed in the Ohio Valley; the Quebec Act so outraged protestant Americans that it became a significant catalyst (cause) for the outbreak of the Revolutionary War
Stamp Act 1765; aimed to raise revenue (not mercantilist in nature), taxed any printed item, including contracts, titles, almanacs, playing carts, etc.; highest fees were on legal documents, so impacted the wealthy most; was efficient to collect; was enforced by the Vice Admiralty Court; overall goal of the Act was to assert parliamentary supremacy; outraged the colonists, esp. enforcement by the naval courts
Revenue Act1767; authored by Chancellor Townshend (see below) and part of the series of laws called Townshend Acts, created various customs boards (to regulate imports) and Vice-admiralty courts in the colonies; the Acts consisted of five laws passed in 1767 that further restrained colonial autonomy and imposed direct British governance on the colonies
Sugar Act 1763, replaced the Molasses Act of 1733 and lowered duties on sugar with the goal of raising more revenue through a more reasonable tax rate; after its passage, Parliament authorized that its enforcement belong to the Vice-Admiralty courts
Tea Act 1773
Townshend Acts 1767, series of tax and regulatory laws named for the British chancellor in charge of finances, Charles Townshend; the principle Act, The Revenue Act of 1767, is known as the "Townshend Act"; it aimed to raise revenue through duties on colonial importation fo paper, pain, glass and tea; part of the revenue would pay for Royal colonial offices, such as governors, judges, etc. who had been previously funded by the colonies themselves; however, Townshend's purpose was not to assist the colonies but to make them more dependent on and obedient to British rule and overall less autonomous
John Adams Massachusetts lawyer and early advocate of colonial rights who became a central figure in the move toward independence. He defended the British soldiers of the Boston Massacre on principle, yet later pushed strongly for the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolution he served as a diplomat in Europe, helping secure crucial support for the Patriot cause.
Samuel Adams Boston radical and key organizer of early resistance to British policies, including the Sons of Liberty. He helped mobilize popular opposition through committees of correspondence and public agitation. His persistent pressure for collective action made him one of the most influential early Patriots.
John Dickinson Pennsylvania lawyer and author who urged resistance to British taxation while still advocating reconciliation. His writings, including the “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,” argued that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies without consent. Though he opposed declaring independence in 1776, he later served in the Continental Army and helped draft the Articles of Confederation.
Benjamin Franklin as scientist and successful publisher, the most famous American in his day; up until final moments before war, was always conciliatory to the British, accepting of British rule, and sought compromise; however, stood firm for colonial rights, including representation in Parliament; was early thinker about colonial union, esp. given experience as Postmaster of the colonies (Albany Plan); Franklin was an "Enlightenment" thinker who sought to explain the world through reason; this led him to "deism" (see entry)
>> to merge
Benjamin Franklin Prominent colonial scientist, printer, and diplomat who became the most famous American of his era. Though long conciliatory toward Britain, he defended colonial rights and ultimately supported independence after repeated political failures in London. An Enlightenment thinker, he helped plan colonial union, promoted deism, and secured essential French support during the Revolution.
John Hancock Wealthy Boston merchant and prominent Patriot; president of the Second Continental Congress and first signer of the Declaration of Independence; used his fortune and political influence to support the Patriot cause.
Patrick Henry Virginia Patriot known for fiery speeches opposing British tyranny; an early advocate of colonial resistance, including the Virginia Resolves against the Stamp Act; remembered for “Give me liberty or give me death!” in support of armed defense of colonial rights.
John Jay New York Patriot who helped negotiate peace with Britain (Treaty of Paris, 1783); moderate early in the conflict, but opposed British policies limiting colonial rights; later became the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court under the Constitution.
Thomas Jefferson Virginia statesman and principal author of the Declaration of Independence. He articulated Enlightenment ideas about natural rights and the purpose of government in shaping the Patriot cause. During the Revolution he served in various political roles and later became a key national leader.
Richard Henry Lee Virginia statesman who introduced the June 1776 resolution calling for independence; longtime supporter of colonial rights and opponent of British taxation; later served in the Articles of Confederation government.
James Otis Boston lawyer whose arguments against writs of assistance helped inspire colonial resistance; coined the phrase “Taxation without representation is tyranny”; influential early critic of British policy despite declining health later in the Revolution.
Thomas Paine English-born writer whose pamphlet *Common Sense* argued powerfully for American independence. He presented monarchy as incompatible with natural rights and helped shift public opinion toward separation from Britain. His later writings, including *The American Crisis*, boosted Patriot morale during the war.
George Washington Virginia planter and former British officer chosen to command the Continental Army. His leadership held the Patriot cause together through early defeats and long hardships. Washington’s strategic patience and ability to sustain the army led to eventual victory and made him a unifying national figure.
American Revolutionary War military leaders[edit | edit source]
Benedict Arnold Continental officer who played a key role in early Patriot victories, including Saratoga; felt underappreciated and eventually switched sides to join the British; name became synonymous with treason in American memory.
Horatio Gates Continental Army general credited with victory at Saratoga, a turning point of the war; previously served as a British officer and sought leadership roles in the Patriot cause; his later defeat at Camden damaged his military reputation.
Marquis de Lafayette Young French nobleman who volunteered to fight for American independence; became a trusted aide to Washington and secured French support for the Patriot cause; symbol of Revolutionary ideals on both sides of the Atlantic.
Baron von Steuben Prussian officer who trained and reorganized the Continental Army at Valley Forge; introduced standardized drills and discipline that strengthened Patriot forces; his reforms helped turn the army into an effective fighting force.
English political & military leaders who played important roles in the American Revolution[edit | edit source]
General Charles Cornwallis Principal British commander in the southern campaign; won several victories but was eventually surrounded at Yorktown; his surrender in 1781 effectively ended major fighting in the Revolutionary War.
Thomas Gage British general and governor of Massachusetts during the early crisis; enforced Parliamentary acts that heightened tensions with colonists; his attempts to seize weapons at Lexington and Concord sparked the first battles of the war.
George GrenvillePrime Minister (head of Parliamant), asserted British sovereignty over colonies and led various enforcement and tax laws through Parliament, including the Sugar Act; Grenville's tax policies shifted British tax policy away from mercantilism towards revenue-raising
Lord North British Prime Minister from 1770 to 1782 who oversaw most of the imperial policies that pushed the colonies toward rebellion. Though personally moderate and willing to compromise, he supported the Coercive Acts after the Boston Tea Party to reassert parliamentary authority. His government collapsed after the British defeat at Yorktown.
Charles Townshend Chancellor of the Exchequer whose 1767 Townshend Acts imposed new duties on colonial imports. His measures attempted to raise revenue and assert Parliament’s right to tax but revived colonial resistance after the repeal of the Stamp Act. Townshend died shortly after the acts passed, leaving the political fallout to others.
General Charles Cornwallis Principal British commander in the southern campaign; won several victories but was eventually surrounded at Yorktown; his surrender in 1781 effectively ended major fighting in the Revolutionary War.
British Leaders
Leader
Dates
Policy
Pitt the Elder
prosecution of Seven Years War
Lord Bute
1760-1763
mild reform
George Grenville
strong reform
strong reform
Lord Rockingham
1765-1766
compromise
William Pitt (the younger) & Charles Townshend
1766-1770
strong reform
Lord North
1770-1782
coercion
reform = adjust policy to exercise British interests over those of colonies
compromise = attempting to meet colonial demands while pleasing hard-liners in England
Not important to know for the AP but provide good context and may show up in stimuli.
Crispus Attucks Sailor and dockworker of African and Native descent considered the first person killed in the Boston Massacre (1770). His death became a powerful symbol used by Patriots to highlight British oppression. Attucks was later celebrated as an early martyr of the independence movement.
James Armistead Lafayette Enslaved Virginian who served as a double agent for the Continental Army. His intelligence work misled British forces and contributed directly to the victory at Yorktown. After the war he gained his freedom and took the surname “Lafayette” in honor of the Marquis who supported his petition.
Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) Mohawk leader who allied with the British during the Revolutionary War. He sought to protect Native lands from colonial expansion and led Iroquois and Loyalist forces in frontier campaigns. After the war he negotiated for Native rights and relocated with many Mohawk people to Canada.
George Rogers Clark Frontier militia leader who led successful campaigns in the Old Northwest against British and Native forces. His capture of key outposts helped secure American claims to western lands in the Treaty of Paris. Though influential, he struggled financially after the war due to lack of reimbursement.
Richard Montgomery Former British officer who sided with the Patriots and led the early invasion of Canada. He captured Montreal but was killed during the failed assault on Quebec in 1775. Montgomery became an early hero of the Patriot cause and a symbol of sacrifice.
Molly Pitcher (Mary Ludwig Hays) Symbolic figure associated with women who supported troops by carrying water and assisting artillery crews. She is most commonly linked to actions at the Battle of Monmouth, where she reportedly took over her husband’s cannon. Though part legend, she represents women’s direct contributions to the Patriot war effort.
John Paul Jones Naval commander often called the “father of the American Navy.” He gained fame for daring attacks on British ships, including his victory off Flamborough Head where he declared, “I have not yet begun to fight!” His successes boosted Patriot morale and international prestige.
Deborah Sampson Massachusetts woman who disguised herself as a man to serve in the Continental Army. She fought in several engagements before her identity was discovered. After the war she successfully petitioned Congress for a pension, becoming an early example of women’s military service.
Mercy Otis Warren Massachusetts writer whose plays and pamphlets criticized British authority and supported the Patriot cause. She participated in political correspondence networks and influenced revolutionary thought. After the war she authored one of the earliest histories of the American Revolution.
Phillis Wheatley Enslaved African American poet whose 1773 published works brought her international recognition. Her poems linked classical themes with ideas of liberty and natural rights, subtly critiquing slavery. Wheatley supported the Patriot cause and directly corresponded with leaders including George Washington.
Phillis Wheatley Enslaved African American poet whose writings praised liberty and criticized slavery; her 1773 published poems gained international attention; supported Patriot ideals and corresponded with leaders such as George Washington.
Bunker Hill June 17, 1775, following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the British attempted to resupply their garrison at Boston, but was blocked by colonials on land and in the harbor; the colonial resistance was called, "the siege of Boston" (April 1775-March 1776); George Washington was appointed by the Continental Congress to command the American forces, who were importantly supplied with canons taken from Fort Ticonderoga in Nov., 1775, giving them a line of fire upon the British. Just before the battle, the Americans stealthily occupied Bunker Hill, which the British attacked head-on, suffering far more casualties than the Americans; while the Americans were forced to abandon Bunker Hill, the British realized that colonial military resistance could be effective; the British finally abandoned Boston in March, 1776
Lexington and Concord April 19, 1775, Massachusetts; colonial militia drive back British troops who marched towards Concord to seize colonial military supplies (which had already been moved out); the fighting started at Lexington and concluded at the "North Bridge" in Concord, where the 100 British troopers were outfought by 400 colonial militia; the British movement from Boston was announced by Paul Revere ("The Midnight Ride") and another man who rode from Boston to warn about the British movement (the signal for which was two lanterns in the Old North Church to indicate the British initial movement was "by sea" ("one if by land, two if by sea")
Creation of the United States: Articles of Confederation & U.S. Constitution[edit | edit source]
"united States" was first used (or prominently used) in the Declaration of Independence
but the term "united" was a modifier, not proper noun.
The Second Continental Congress officially adopted the name "united Colonies" (lower case "united") on Sept. 9, 1776,
as it was also termed in the Declaration of Independence (" The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America").
the Articles of Confederation, first drafted in June, 1776, then when adopted in 1781, stated, "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'" (capitalized "United", and so now a proper noun).
on March 4, 1789, when the Constitution was formally adopted , the named the country "United States" and called the Constitution, "this Constitution for the United States of America."
proposed in June, 1776, adopted by the various states starting with Virginia in Dec., 1777, officially adopted with Maryland's ratification on Feb 2, 1781 (Delaware ratified it Feb 1, 1779; all other states ratified it across 1778).
Northwest Ordinance 1787 law under the Articles of Confederation that included many protections and rights that would be included in the original US Constitution and Bill or Rights, including property rights, freedom of religion, habeus corpus and trial by jury, as well as a prohibition on slavery; also set conditions for admission of new states to the Union
Early Republic and Washington's presidency[edit | edit source]
American Systembased on ideas of Alexander Hamilton, promoted by Henry Clay and JQ Adams, general Whig policies of early to mid 18th century, including: tariff, land sales for revenue, National Bank, "internal improvements"; adherents to the American System were called Federalists or "National Republicans" and later became Whigs
Cabinet
Citizen Genet affair 1793; French Ambassador Genet sparked outrage by his attempts to raise money and a militia of US citizens to fight in France's war against Britain and Spain; Washington demanded his removal as ambassador and issued the Proclamation of Neutrality as a result of the affair
Democratic-Republican Party following Jefferson's vision of a more decentralized national governance, his partisans organized the party to oppose Hamilton's centralization programs, especially the national bank, tariffs, and national debt; the party stood for agrarianism, free trade, individual liberty and states-rights
Federalist partyfollowing Alexander Hamilton's program of an active, strong federal government that exercised powers over the economy and in support of industry, especially through a national bank, a tariff, and investment in infrastructure
"foreign entanglements"
French Revolutionthe 1789 French Revolution, in part inspired by the American Revolution, divided Americans politically between those who supported the French Revolution and those who, if not siding with the British necessarily, opposed the increasingly radical nature of the French Revolution
internal improvementsoriginating in Alexander Hamilton's ideas, of promotive national unity and economic activity via federal investment in roads and canals (paid w/ tariffs and land sales) with economic and industrial protection via tariffs; "internal improvements" was a central Whig party tenet into the 1820s
Jacobinsfollowing the French Revolutionary movement, Americans who formed clubs to support the French Revolution called themselves the "Jacobins"; they called one another "citizen" and considered themselves heirs to American Revolutionary ideals
Jay's Treaty1794; settled dispute with British over the Canadian border and British military presence in the Northwest Territory and impressment of American sailors; among terms, the treaty encouraged American trade with Britain, to which Jeffersonians objected (they preferred relations with France), as well as the absence of compensation from Britain for lost slaves during the Revolutionary War, which southerners had insisted upon
Jeffersonians/ Jeffersonianismadherents to Thomas Jefferson's vision of "American republicanism" based upon "simple," independent and self-sufficient white "yeoman" farmers;
the philosophy was largely anti-commercialism (esp. banks, factories, merchants), anti-urban, and anti-elitism, and anti-federalist (i.e. against strong central government); Jeffersonianism supported universal white male suffrage (without a property requirement) and grass-roots democracy of independent farmers
National Bank the First National Bank was chartered by Congress in 1791 (the Second came in 1816); the Bank's role was to manage a national currency and the national debt, establish credit, and facilitate financial transactions for economic growth;
core to Hamilton's program
Pinckney's Treaty 1795 treaty negotiated by American Thomas Pickney w/ Spain to guarantee U.S. access to and navigation rights along the Mississippi River; also settled border dispute over Florida (putting Chickasaw and Choctaw Nation lands within the U.S.), and secured Spanish promise not to incite indian attacks on either side;
political parties as ideological disputes arose between Hamilton (federalist) and Jefferson (anti-federalist) factions, supporters of each joined in what would become "political parties" -- or political organizations designed to influence and control the federal government; the Whiskey Rebellion and the growing divide between French and British supporters in the country fueled the political divisions and their eventual, formal organization; George Washington warned of the dangers of political parties in his Farewell Address
Proclamation of Neutrality 1793; as England and France went to war, the United State attempted to maintain neutrality between them; the Proclamation asserted the right of American ships to bypass French and British blockades of each other's ports and to trade with either nation; the policy was hugely beneficial to American merchants who profited from the situation and whose shipbuilding and merchant marine industry grew enormously
Report on the Public Credit in 1790-91, Hamilton issued three reports to Congress recommending laws and policies designed to reduce the War debts, grow the economy, and protect national industry; his 1790 "Report on the Public Credit" outlined the extent of US debt, held mostly by private Americans but also foreigners. Hamilton proposed that the federal government "assume" or buy this debt and establish a system for managing "public credit" and paying off the debts; the existing holders of the debt were set to profit enormously from the scheme; the new debt was to be paid off through duties and excise taxes; the proposals led to the first serious political split in the new country; a compromise was made in 1790 to settle the new Capitol, Washington, DC, in the South (between Maryland and Virginia) in exchange for southern support (northern states held more War debt) of Hamilton's plan to "assume" the debts
Report on Manufactures Hamilton's 1791 report to Congress for the promotion of US manufacturing industry through tariffs, "internal improvements" (see above) and government loans to and purchases of American products, especially for national defense; note that creation of the National Bank was integral to Hamilton's economic plans; the Report was co-authored by Hamilton's Asst. Sec of Treasury, Tench Coxe, a chief proponent of manufacturing & tariffs, and who brought the first cotton gins to the country and promoted cotton farming in the South
Republican motherhood in the early Republic, the notion of female participation in republican governance purely in the home by raising and educating their sons in republicanism and in upholding those values in their own lives and outlook; the ideal of republican motherhood was to instruct their sons "in the principles of liberty and government"
republicanismpolitical doctrine of representative government through the votes of citizens of equal political status; republicanism was strongly anti-monarchy and anit-aristocracy; elements of republican philosophy include democracy, honest governance, individualism, property rights, self-rule
Treaty of Greenville 1795; after setbacks in military challenges to and failed treaties with Ohio Valley tribes in the late 1780s and early 1790s (especially victories by Miami tribe chief, "Little Turtle" in 1790/91) Washington sent a larger force under Rev. War hero General "Mad" Anthony Wayne; following Wayne's victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in Ohio, the US Army, sent to Ohio by Washington, signed a treaty with a group of Ohio Valley tribes, the "Western Confederacy," to exchange material and monetary payments to the tribes in exchange for land; the treaty opened up most of modern Ohio to settlement and, ultimately, its admission as a state in 1820
Whiskey Rebellion 1794; western Pennsylvania farmers objected to the 1791 federal "whisky tax", and "excise" tax on "spirits" (alcohol), which was a big part of Hamilton's economic and fiscal program; protesters attacked tax collectors and federal officers sent to enforce the law; Washington ordered federal troops and state militia to put down the rebellion, an assertion of federal powers
Bill of Rights "BOR" was adopted at the insistence of the anti-federalists who demanded explicit limits upon the powers of the central ("federal") government in order to protect the rights of the people and the states. In September 1789, Congress proposed twelve amendments to the Constitution; ratified one article at a time by the states, with ten adopted in December, 1791. NOTE: the BOR does not establish any rights: instead, it protects pre-existing rights from encroachment by the federal government; its jurisdiction was only over federal powers and not those of the states; over time, the Supreme Court has "incorporated" (put into the body of) the BOR into state law
judicial review the judicial principal that the courts have the power to settled disputes, including over the meaning of laws and the Constitution; see Marbury v. Madison
Judiciary Act of 1789 established the structure of the federal courts and, most importantly, gave the Supreme Court appellate power, or the to decide on cases arising in state courts or between states, thus ensuring the supremacy of the Supreme Court over state courts
Important Supreme Court decisions during Washington's presidency[edit | edit source]
Chisholm v. Georgia 1793 case that established that states could be sued in federal court by citizens of another state, asserting the supremacy of federal law over state law.
Hylton v. United States 1796 Supremee Court deicsion that upheld the constitutionality of a federal carriage tax, thus affirming the federal government's power to impose excise taxes on economic activity or goods; the decision distinguished excise taxes from a "direct tax" which would require "apportionment" (dividing up) based on state populations.
Ware v. Hylton 1796 decision that upheld the supremacy of federal treaties over state laws
While Adams was elected Washington's Vice President for both terms, and Adams was elected President in 17986 by
Alien & Sedition Acts
British-French conflict & Napoleonic Wars in 1792, the new French Republic attacked Austria and Netherlands, and in 1795 Prussia and Italy; by the Napoleon Bonaparte had taken control of the French Army and began his attempted conquest of all of Europe; the wars united the French, who felt threatened by and who in turn threatened the monarchs of Europe; the British opposed the French expansionism, especially through its superior Navy, and, eventually, on land during the Napoleonic Wars; Americans were politically divided in their sympathies for France or Britain, nominally between Jefferson (for France) v. Adams/Hamilton (for Britain)
impressment British naval policy of boarding American vessels and seizing anyone the British claimed to be an English citizen, and forcing them into service for the British Navy; many American sailors were English but had switched sides and so were vulnerable to this policy; the British used impressment as an excuse to halt and board ships in general
Midnight Appointments just before close of his presidency, Adams made last minute appointments of federal officers and magistrates, including that of John Marshall to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; Jeffersonians mocked the appointments as "Midnight Judges"; and refused to deliver any remaining appointments when he took office, including that of William Marbury
Principles of '98 reference to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 that protested the extension of federal powers to enforce the Alien and Sedition Acts; the Principles of '98 were never officially adopted by any state, and several states specifically objected to them, upholding the Supremacy Clause, especially regarding the power of the Supreme Court to rule on federal law
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in opposition to the Alien and Sedition acts, the states of Virginia and Kentucky issued statements condemning the Acts and calling them unconstitutional; authored in secret by Madison and Jefferson, the Resolutions outlined the theory of nullification that the Federal government was a compact of states, so the states could withhold their agreement to that or part of that compact; it also argued that the federal government only had the power to enforce crimes specifically outlined in the Constitution (which much of the Alien and Sedition Acts exceeded); George Washington was appalled by the Resolutions, and presciently warned that if pursued they would lead to dissolution of the union
Aaron BurrBorn in 1756 in New Jersey, Aaron Burr served as Thomas Jefferson’s first vice president after the contested Election of 1800. His career was marked by political rivalry, including his fatal duel with Alexander Hamilton in 1804. Later, Burr was tried (and acquitted) for treason over an alleged scheme to form an independent nation in the West.
Embargo Act of 1807Passed in December 1807 in response to British and French interference with American shipping during the Napoleonic Wars, the Embargo Act halted all U.S. exports. Jefferson intended it to pressure Britain and France without war, but it devastated the American economy, especially New England merchants. The act proved deeply unpopular and was replaced in 1809.
Lewis and Clark ExpeditionFrom 1804 to 1806, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led a federally sponsored expedition to explore the Louisiana Purchase and seek a route to the Pacific. Starting in St. Louis, they mapped rivers, documented geography and Native nations, and strengthened American claims to the Northwest. Their journey expanded scientific knowledge and encouraged later westward settlement.
Louisiana PurchaseIn 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the nation’s size. Jefferson justified the acquisition despite constitutional doubts, viewing it as essential for national growth and control of the Mississippi River. The purchase accelerated westward expansion and raised debates about slavery in new territories.
Napoleonic WarsFought between 1803 and 1815, the Napoleonic Wars engulfed Europe and disrupted global trade. Britain and France seized American ships and impressed U.S. sailors, pressuring the Jefferson and Madison administrations. These conflicts contributed to diplomatic tensions leading up to the War of 1812.
Revolution of 1800The Election of 1800 marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history, from Federalists to Democratic‑Republicans. Jefferson referred to it as a “revolution” because he believed it corrected Federalist overreach and restored republican principles. The event demonstrated the stability of the new constitutional system.
The Marshall Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall from 1801 to 1835, played a decisive role in shaping the early constitutional framework of the United States. Through a series of landmark decisions, the Court strengthened federal authority, clarified the balance between state and national powers, and established the judiciary as a coequal branch of government. Many of its rulings laid the foundation for modern interpretations of the Constitution, especially in commerce, contracts, and judicial review.
Chisholm v. GeorgiaDecided in 1793, this was the first major constitutional case heard by the Supreme Court. The Court ruled that a citizen of one state could sue another state in federal court, provoking strong resistance from states' rights advocates. The backlash led directly to the Eleventh Amendment (1795), which limited federal judicial power.
Calder v. BullIn 1798, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution’s prohibition on ex post facto laws applied only to criminal legislation. The case is famous for a debate between Justices Samuel Chase and James Iredell over natural rights and judicial philosophy. It highlighted early disagreements about the role of courts in interpreting unwritten principles.
Cooper v. TelfairThis 1800 case reviewed Georgia’s confiscation of Loyalist property following the Revolution. The Court upheld the law, showing deference to state legislative authority. The decision revealed how uncertain and evolving constitutional interpretation was before the Marshall Court.
Hayburn’s CaseBetween 1792 and 1795, federal circuit courts (including Supreme Court justices riding circuit) refused to perform pension‑processing duties assigned by Congress. They argued such administrative tasks were non‑judicial and violated the separation of powers. Although not a formal Supreme Court decision, the case helped define limits on judicial responsibilities.
Hylton v. United StatesDecided in 1796, this early Supreme Court case addressed the constitutionality of a federal tax on carriages. The Court upheld the tax and, in doing so, established one of the earliest precedents for judicial review of federal law. Though overshadowed by later cases, it reflected the Court’s growing role in constitutional interpretation.
Ware v. HyltonIn 1796, the Supreme Court struck down a Virginia law that conflicted with the Treaty of Paris (1783). The ruling established that treaties are supreme over state laws, reinforcing federal authority in foreign affairs. It served as an early demonstration of constitutional supremacy and judicial enforcement.</li
Dartmouth College v. WoodwardDecided in 1819, this case involved New Hampshire’s attempt to alter Dartmouth’s colonial charter. The Supreme Court ruled the charter was a contract protected by the Constitution’s Contract Clause. The decision strengthened limits on state interference in private institutions and supported economic stability.
Gibbons v. OgdenIn 1824, the Supreme Court struck down a New York steamboat monopoly that conflicted with a federal license. The ruling asserted federal authority over interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause. It became a foundational case for expanding federal regulatory power.
Marbury v. MadisonIssued in 1803, this landmark decision arose from the disputed “midnight appointments” made at the end of the Adams administration. The Court held that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, establishing the principle of judicial review. This ruling significantly strengthened the Supreme Court’s role in government.
McCulloch v. MarylandDecided in 1819, the case involved Maryland’s attempt to tax the Second Bank of the United States. The Court ruled that Congress had implied powers to create the bank and that states could not tax federal institutions, citing the Supremacy Clause. The decision reinforced federal power over the states.
Osborn v. Bank of the United StatesIn 1824, the Supreme Court considered whether federal courts could block Ohio from taxing the Bank of the United States. The ruling expanded federal judicial power by allowing suits against state officials acting unconstitutionally. This decision further strengthened the national government’s financial and legal authority.
Following border tensions, frontier disputes over the British arming of native tribes, and outrage at British impressment of American sailors, American militia and naval forces attacked British Canada. The British attached Baltimore and Washington DC, which was burned in retaliation for American burning of the Canadian capital at Ottawa. The war ended a parity with not major advantage to either side. But despite a clear victory, the Americans considered it a great success for having fended off the strongest empire in the world, and the war led to greater American unity and the "Era of Good Feelings."
Battle of Tippecanoe1811 in Indiana Territory; in 1809, Shawnee chief Tecumseh reorganized the Western Confederacy of tribes to oppose American settlement; his brother, Tenskwatawa, considered by the tribes a prophet, provided "nativist ideology" of resistance to American settlement and cultural "purification", which bridged tribal differences (who had language barriers); Tecumseh allied himself with British agents; in 1811, the Governor of the territory, William Henry Harrison (later a President), attacked "Prophetstown" while Tecumseh was travelling to the west to gather support from other tribes; the army destroyed the town and effectively ended Tecumseh's insurgency, although he fought actively with the British during the War of 1812, including in the British capture of Ft. Detroit
Hartford Convention 1814-15Federalist convention to oppose the War of 1812; northeastern federalists objected to the war, especially in the face of effective British naval embargo of American ships into 1813; some Boston banks refused to loan needed funds to the US Government; the Convention called for Constitutional amendments to require 2/3rds majority vote to declare war and admit new states; the most radical of the attendees called for secession of New England states from the union; the Convention was poorly received and led to the collapse of the Federalist party (replaced by the Whigs)
impressment starting in 1807, the British Navy increased its pressure on American vessels trading with France and seized American sailors who were of British birth, even if they were American citizens; the British Navy even seized entire cargos and ships; the events led to outrage and anti-British sentiment and contributed to the outbreak of the War of 1812
Treaty of Ghent Dec 1814; ended the War of 1812; both sides were ready for an end and adopted the treaty quickly, despite not real change in the border situations that preceded the war, including the Canadian border; Britain agreed do return freed slaves, but ultimately compensated the US government for them; the treaty was signed prior to the final battle at New Orleans on Jan 8, 1815, which launched the political career of General Andrew Jackson; more directly, the Treaty enhanced the prestige of John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) who negotiated it
War Hawks western Jeffersonians (Republicans) who blamed Britain for violating treaties and inciting indian attacks on American settlers and outposts; the British did arm tribes, including the Shawnee under chief Tecumseh{{{2}}}
War of 1812
Whigs led by Henry Clay, the party replaced the Federalist Party, which was disgraced for its opposition to the War of 1812; the Whig Party was essentially Hamiltonian in its support of the "American System" of investment in infrastructure, tariffs, the national bank, and support ofr industry; the Whig party dissolved in the 1850s after having largely opposed, including Henry Clay, the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and due to the failures of the Compromise of 1850
Missouri Compromise another name for the Compromise of 1820
Monroe Doctrine1823, Monroe issued a warning to Spain and Europe in general to stay out of the internal affairs of the Americas; its issuance followed the Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 which limited British and American military presence on the the Great Lakes and the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 the "doctrine" was promoted by John Quincy Adams, Monroe's Secretary of State; the Doctrine was an exercise of American diplomatic power and coincided with the collapse of Spanish control of the Americas, as its colonies began to declare independence, starting with Venezuela in 1811 and most importantly by Mexico in 1821
Panic of 1819as the nation grew, banks issued more and more "unsecured" loans (i.e. loans that were not directly backed by bank deposits), which went most dominantly towards land acquisition and farming expansion; following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, agricultural prices dropped as production exceeded demand, and farm commodity prices collapsed (especially cotton and wheat); as a result, farmers could not pay back loans and sold land and lower and lower prices to cover their debts
The Appalachian watershed provided almost unlimited opportunity for building of mills and dams to serve them. In Massachusetts,
commercial versus sustenance farming |into the 1800s, farming became more connected to markets and thus more specialized; rather than farming to meet a family's needs, which would require both crops and animals, farms increasingly specialized in one or the other, and sold their production in exchange for (via currency) other food and goods; canals, dams, mills, rivers and roads provided access for these farmers to markets for their goods
Commonwealth system| favorable laws, loans and public policy withing states towards transportation, industrial enterprises, etc. under the idea that such preferences were "for the common welfare"
dams
eminent domain
Lancaster Turnpike
mills| from 1809 to 1817, the number of "spinner mills" (just one type of mill) grew from 8,000 to 330,000; spinner mills created yarn from wool and replaced hand-run spinners
Mill Dam Act of 1795| Massachusetts law that granted dam owners rights to build dams that flooded farmland, forcing them to accept "fair compensation" for the lost land, without possibility of stopping the dam itself
aristocracy built on primogeniture, which passes "titles" -- social, economic and political ranks granted by a king -- to the first born son; the end of primogeniture dissolved the ability to pass on large estates to a single child (75% under the English custom) and spread inherited wealth across all male, and, eventually, female, children
companionate marriage marriage by choice and not family arrangement; marks dramatic change based upon the "democratic" principle of equality and pursuit of happiness; the idea that marriage is a choice also led to a growing acceptance of divorce within legal and social norms (a long process)
democratic society reflects the idea that all men are born equal (originally, white males) and so social choices and reputations are based not upon one's birth but one's personal reputation
demographic transition the early Republic experienced dramatic decreases in the overall birthrate due to westward migration by young men, economic and market growth which reduced the need for large families
sentimentalism movement of early 1800s that emphasized personal happiness over social obligations and roles
primogeniture practice of inheritance of an estate (or, in Europe, of a Royal title) to the first born son; primogeniture meant that daughters and 2nd + sons did not receive an inheritance, or as much as the first born son, and had to pursue their own fortunes
party machineA party machine was a disciplined political organization that mobilized voters, distributed patronage, and controlled nominations at the local and state levels. In the Jacksonian era, party machines expanded dramatically as campaigns shifted toward mass participation and organized voter outreach. These systems helped solidify partisan identities and the emerging two‑party system.
spoils systemThe spoils system was the practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters after an electoral victory. Jacksonians justified it as “rotation in office,” arguing it prevented entrenched elites from controlling government. Critics accused it of fostering corruption and incompetence, but it became a defining feature of early 19th‑century party politics.
universal (white) male suffrageDuring the Jacksonian era, many states eliminated property requirements for voting, dramatically expanding political participation among white men. This broadened electorate transformed elections by increasing turnout and shifting political power away from elites and toward ordinary voters. However, these gains excluded women, Native Americans, and African Americans, reinforcing racial and gender inequalities.
John Quincy AdamsBorn in 1767 in Braintree, Massachusetts, John Quincy Adams was a diplomat, secretary of state, and the sixth president of the United States. He helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, shaped the Monroe Doctrine, and later became a leading antislavery voice in the House of Representatives. Adams is widely regarded as one of the most accomplished diplomats in U.S. history.
Henry ClayHenry Clay (1777–1852) was a leading statesman, Speaker of the House, senator, and secretary of state. Known as the “Great Compromiser,” he engineered major sectional compromises such as the Missouri Compromise (1820) and the Compromise of 1850. Clay promoted the American System—protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements—to strengthen the national economy and preserve the Union.
Andrew JacksonAndrew Jackson (1767–1845), a military hero of the War of 1812, served as the seventh president of the United States. His presidency expanded executive power, promoted the “common man,” and reshaped American politics through what became known as Jacksonian democracy. His legacy includes the Indian Removal Act, the Bank War, and his strong opposition to nullification.>
Martin Van BurenMartin Van Buren (1782–1862) was a key architect of the Democratic Party and served as the eighth president of the United States. Known as the “Little Magician” for his political skill, he helped organize the Second Party System and strengthened party structure at the national level. His presidency was overshadowed by the Panic of 1837, though he remained influential in Democratic politics for decades.
Daniel WebsterDaniel Webster (1782–1852) was one of the nation’s greatest orators, a leading senator, and an influential constitutional lawyer. He argued landmark Supreme Court cases supporting federal authority and delivered powerful speeches defending the Union. As a central figure in the Whig Party and part of the “Great Triumvirate,” Webster helped shape debates over nationalism, sectionalism, and compromise before the Civil War.
U.S. presidential election popular vote totals as a percentage of the total U.S. population. Note the surge in 1828 (extension of suffrage to non-property-owning white men), the drop from 1890 to 1910 (when Southern states disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites), and another surge in 1920 (extension of suffrage to women).
Bank WarThe Bank War was the political battle in the early 1830s between President Andrew Jackson and Nicholas Biddle, head of the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson opposed the Bank as an institution of elite privilege and vetoed its recharter in 1832, then removed federal deposits and placed them in state “pet banks.” Biddle retaliated by contracting credit, intensifying economic turmoil and fueling national debate. Jackson ultimately prevailed as the Bank’s federal charter expired in 1836, reshaping American banking and strengthening the executive branch.
Corrupt BargainThe “Corrupt Bargain” refers to the outcome of the 1824 presidential election, in which no candidate won an electoral majority and the House selected John Quincy Adams as president. When Adams named Henry Clay—Speaker of the House and one of the candidates—as his secretary of state, Andrew Jackson’s supporters charged that a deal had been struck. The accusation fueled deep resentment and helped launch Jackson’s 1828 campaign.
Force BillPassed in 1833, the Force Bill authorized President Andrew Jackson to use military power to enforce federal tariff laws during the Nullification Crisis. It asserted federal supremacy by allowing the government to compel South Carolina to collect duties. Although never used militarily, it reinforced the authority of the national government.
Great TriumvirateThe “Great Triumvirate” refers to Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun—three influential senators who shaped national debates during the early 19th century. Representing the West, North, and South, they often clashed over tariffs, slavery, and federal power. Their rivalry and cooperation defined the political landscape leading up to the Civil War.
Jacksonian democracyJacksonian democracy was a political movement expanding political participation for white men during Andrew Jackson’s era. It championed majority rule, challenged entrenched elites, and promoted the idea of the “common man” in politics. Despite its democratic rhetoric, it marginalized women, Native Americans, and African Americans.
Indian Removal ActEnacted in 1830, the Indian Removal Act authorized the federal government to negotiate the relocation of Native nations to lands west of the Mississippi. Though framed as “voluntary,” most removals occurred under pressure or force. The law led directly to widespread suffering, most infamously the Trail of Tears.
Nullification CrisisThe Nullification Crisis (1832–1833) was a confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government over tariffs deemed unconstitutional by the state. Led by John C. Calhoun, South Carolina claimed the right to nullify federal laws. The crisis ended with a compromise tariff and the assertion of federal authority through the Force Bill.
Petticoat affairThe Petticoat Affair (1829–1831) was a social and political scandal involving Margaret “Peggy” Eaton, wife of Jackson’s secretary of war. The wives of cabinet members snubbed Eaton, prompting Jackson to defend her, leading to cabinet resignations and tensions with Vice President Calhoun. The conflict strengthened Martin Van Buren’s influence in the administration.
Postal ServiceIn the Jacksonian period, the U.S. Postal Service expanded rapidly as transportation routes grew and political messaging intensified. Post offices became hubs for newspapers, party literature, and political organizing. The controversy over the “abolitionist mails” highlighted rising sectional tensions as southern postmasters blocked antislavery materials.
Panic of 1837The Panic of 1837 was a severe financial crisis triggered by speculative lending, falling cotton prices, and financial strain in British markets. Banks collapsed, businesses failed, and unemployment spread nationwide. The downturn defined Martin Van Buren’s presidency and contributed to a long economic depression.
Second Party Systemterm for the new political order that arose with Jackson's presidency; the System was marked by higher voter interest and participation and the dominance of the Democratic and Whig parties and their machinery which included partisan newspapers, rallies, and election-day vote drives
Tariff of 1833The Tariff of 1833, engineered by Henry Clay, gradually reduced tariff rates to ease tensions from the Nullification Crisis. It offered the South a path toward lower duties while preserving federal authority. The compromise helped avert armed conflict and temporarily stabilized sectional politics.
Trail of TearsThe Trail of Tears refers to the forced removal of tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral lands to Indian Territory in the 1830s. Thousands died from disease, exposure, and starvation during the long march. It remains one of the most tragic consequences of U.S. Indian policy.
Worcester v. GeorgiaWorcester v. Georgia (1832) was a Supreme Court decision declaring that states had no authority over Native nations, affirming tribal sovereignty. Georgia ignored the ruling, and President Jackson failed to enforce it, exposing limits on judicial power. The case became foundational to federal Indian law.
Gadsden PurchaseThe Gadsden Purchase (1853) was a land acquisition from Mexico that provided the United States with territory in present‑day southern Arizona and New Mexico. It was intended to secure a southern route for a transcontinental railroad and ease border disputes following the U.S.–Mexican War. The purchase reflected growing sectional tensions over the expansion of slavery into new territories.
Gold Rush of 1849The Gold Rush began after gold was discovered in California in 1848, prompting a massive influx of migrants known as “Forty‑Niners.” This rapid population growth accelerated California’s path to statehood and fueled economic expansion across the West. It also intensified conflicts over land, Native rights, and whether new territories would permit slavery.
Know NothingsThe Know Nothings were members of a mid‑1850s nativist political movement formally known as the American Party. They opposed immigration, especially of Catholics, claiming newcomers threatened American jobs and republican values. Though briefly influential, the movement collapsed as sectional tensions eclipsed nativism.
manifest destinyManifest destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent. Advocates tied territorial expansion to economic opportunity, national strength, and racialized notions of American superiority. The idea helped justify settlement, war, and displacement of Native peoples during the antebellum decades.
Mexican American WarThe Mexican–American War (1846–1848) resulted from disputes following the U.S. annexation of Texas. American forces occupied major Mexican cities, and the eventual U.S. victory expanded national territory to include present‑day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. The war reignited fierce debates over the expansion of slavery.
Republic of TexasThe Republic of Texas existed as an independent nation from 1836 to 1845 after rebelling against Mexico. Its annexation by the United States intensified tensions with Mexico and raised contentious questions about slavery’s expansion. Texas’s admission as a slave state helped set the stage for the Mexican–American War.
sectionalismSectionalism refers to growing political, economic, and cultural divisions between the North, South, and West in the antebellum era. Differences in labor systems, economic priorities, and views on slavery fueled escalating conflict. By the 1850s, sectionalism strained national unity and contributed directly to the outbreak of the Civil War.
Treaty of Guadalupe-HidalgoSigned in 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican–American War and transferred a vast region—including California and much of the Southwest—to the United States. The treaty recognized the Rio Grande as the Texas border and promised protection of Mexican residents’ property rights, though these promises were unevenly upheld. The new lands reignited disputes over slavery’s expansion.
Oregon TrailThe Oregon Trail was a major overland migration route used by settlers traveling to the Pacific Northwest in the mid‑1800s. Harsh conditions, disease, and difficult terrain made the journey perilous, yet tens of thousands participated. Their migration contributed to U.S. claims in the Northwest and westward expansion overall.
Economic impacts on historical developments are an important concept for the APUSH test, especially things like "interconnectedness" of markets, "different spheres" of gender roles in a market economy, development of the cotton economy and chattel slavery (harsh treatment focused on cotton production and suppressing slave revolts), etc.
artisanal republicanismThe ideal that economic independence was best achieved through small‑scale, self‑sufficient production—especially independent farming and craft labor. This view emphasized virtue, equality, and autonomy, and stood in contrast to the rise of wage labor and large‑scale industry.
banksBanks expanded rapidly during the antebellum era, providing credit for land purchases, transportation projects, and industrial investment. Their influence grew as the economy shifted from local barter to national markets. Critics worried they concentrated wealth, but banks were essential to commercial and industrial development.
cotton ginInvented by Eli Whitney in 1793, the cotton gin rapidly removed seeds from short‑staple cotton. This dramatically increased cotton production and made plantation slavery far more profitable, reshaping both Southern society and the national economy.
Cumberland/National RoadThe National Road, begun in 1811, was the first major federally funded highway in the United States. Stretching westward from Maryland, it facilitated migration, commerce, and military transport. The road symbolized national commitment to internal improvements during the early Republic.
division of laborAs markets linked regions through roads, canals, and later railroads, production shifted from artisans making whole products to specialized workers performing specific tasks. This increased efficiency but lowered wages for low‑skill jobs and challenged Jeffersonian ideals of self‑sufficient craftsmanship.
Erie CanalBegun in 1817, the Erie Canal linked the Hudson River to Lake Erie, connecting New York City to Midwestern markets. It lowered transportation costs, encouraged migration, and spurred industrial growth. Though later overshadowed by railroads, it remained crucial for trade and development in the Northeast.
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Erie CanalCompleted in 1825, the Erie Canal linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River, creating a direct water route between the Midwest and the Atlantic coast. It dramatically lowered transportation costs, spurred westward migration, and turned New York City into a dominant commercial center. The canal symbolized the era’s ambitious internal improvements.
hub cityA “hub city” emerged where major transportation routes—rivers, canals, roads, or railroads—intersected. These cities became commercial centers for shipping, manufacturing, and finance. The rise of artificial transportation networks allowed inland hubs to rival older coastal ports.
internal improvementsA political and economic term for government‑funded infrastructure projects such as roads, canals, and bridges. Supporters argued these projects promoted national growth and integration, while opponents claimed they expanded federal power and benefited some regions more than others. Debates over internal improvements highlighted sectional tensions.
journeymanA skilled worker who completed an apprenticeship and could now earn wages independently, but had not yet become a master craftsman. Journeymen formed a growing segment of the wage‑earning workforce and often participated in early union efforts.
labor theory of valueA theory promoted by some early labor activists arguing that workers—not factory owners—deserved the full value of the goods they produced. It challenged the growing inequality of industrial capitalism and laid intellectual groundwork for later labor movements.
land speculationThe practice of buying large amounts of undeveloped land in hopes of selling it at a higher price as population and transportation networks expanded. Speculation helped fuel westward migration but also contributed to financial instability and cycles of boom and bust.
Francis Cabot LowellA leading American industrialist who studied British textile mills in 1811 and replicated their technology in Massachusetts. With mechanic Paul Moody, he built highly efficient textile factories that became models for later industrial development.
machine toolsIndustries that produced precision metal machines used in factories. Machine tools enabled mass production, standardized parts, and the growth of other industries by providing reliable, specialized equipment.
market economyA market economy is driven by supply, demand, and profit, where goods and labor are bought and sold through competition rather than government control. In the early 19th century, transportation improvements and technological innovations helped expand a national market. This transformation reshaped daily life, linking farmers, merchants, and workers into a broader commercial network.
market revolutionA fundamental transformation of the U.S. economy driven by improved transportation, rising commercial agriculture, and growth of wage labor. The Market Revolution expanded trade, urbanization, and industrialization, reshaping daily life and regional identities.
mineral-based economyBy the 1830s, growing use of coal to power factories and furnaces replaced reliance on water power. Advances in mining and metal production helped fuel industrial machinery, transportation, and consumer goods made from iron and other metals.
middling classA 19th‑century term for what we now call the middle class—farmers, merchants, artisans, mechanics, surveyors, lawyers, and professionals. Their expanding incomes and consumption made them central to the growth of markets and consumer culture.
putting-out systemA pre‑industrial manufacturing system in which merchants distributed raw materials to rural households for processing. Families completed tasks such as spinning or weaving at home, returning finished goods to the merchant. This system declined as factories centralized production and labor during the Industrial Revolution.
railroadsRailroads emerged as a transformative transportation technology in the 1830s and 1840s, linking distant regions with unprecedented speed. They stimulated industry, reduced shipping costs, and helped create a truly national market. Railroads also reshaped settlement patterns and intensified debates over territorial expansion.
self-made manAn ideal emphasizing that individuals—through hard work, discipline, and ambition—could rise from modest origins to economic success. This belief became a defining cultural value during the antebellum period.
specializationGrowing economic specialization marked the Market Revolution, as farmers and workers increasingly focused on producing a single crop or craft. This shift boosted productivity and integrated regional economies through trade networks. It also made households more dependent on market forces and distant buyers.
steamboatsSteamboats revolutionized river transportation by allowing upstream travel and reducing travel time dramatically. Invented in the early 1800s, they opened western markets, encouraged interstate commerce, and supported the expansion of a national economy. Their growth also accelerated settlement along major rivers.
stock marketA system in which shares of companies are bought and sold, enabling businesses to raise capital for expansion. Early American stock markets supported investment in banks, transportation projects, and industrial development.
textile millsTextile mills were among the first American factories, using water and later steam power to produce cloth on a large scale. Concentrated primarily in New England, these mills drew workers from rural communities and reshaped gender roles through the employment of young women. They were central to early U.S. industrialization.
transportation revolutionA dramatic improvement in transportation through turnpikes, canals, steamboats, and railroads. These innovations connected distant markets, lowered costs, stimulated settlement, and fueled economic growth and regional specialization.
unionsAlso called “trade unions,” these were organizations of workers who banded together to negotiate wages and working conditions. Early unions were small and geographically limited, but they established patterns that later labor movements would build upon.
unskilled workerA worker performing tasks that require little formal training, typically earning low wages. Industrialization increased the proportion of unskilled laborers in the growing factory economy.
lowell systemAn early 19th‑century labor and production model centered on textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts. The system employed young women (“Lowell mill girls”) under regimented conditions, offering wages, boardinghouses, and educational opportunities. Though initially presented as humane industrial labor, the system later faced criticism as hours lengthened and conditions worsened.
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lowell systemAn early 19th‑century labor and production model centered on textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts. The system employed young women (“Lowell mill girls”) under regimented conditions, offering wages, boardinghouses, and educational opportunities. Though initially presented as humane industrial labor, the system later faced criticism as hours lengthened and conditions worsened.
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Waltham-Lowell SystemA textile factory model developed in Massachusetts that combined mechanized production with a controlled labor force of young women (“mill girls”). The system offered wages and supervised boardinghouses while emphasizing moral oversight and education.
Cyrus McCormickInventor of the mechanical reaper, McCormick transformed grain harvesting by making it more efficient and less labor‑intensive. His innovations helped expand commercial agriculture across the Midwest.
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Cyrus McCormickCyrus McCormick invented and marketed the mechanical reaper, revolutionizing grain harvesting in the 1830s. His machine greatly increased farm productivity and helped commercialize agriculture in the Midwest. McCormick’s innovations contributed to regional specialization and the growth of national markets.
Samuel Sellers & Sellers familyA Philadelphia industrial family known for innovations in textile, leather, wire‑making, and locomotive technology. They helped found the Franklin Institute, which promoted scientific education and industrial advancement.
Samuel SlaterAn English mechanic who brought textile machinery knowledge to the United States in 1789. His mill in Rhode Island became the first successful American textile factory, helping launch the nation's industrial revolution.
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Samuel SlaterSamuel Slater was an English‑born mechanic who brought textile manufacturing techniques to the United States, establishing the first successful water‑powered spinning mill in 1790. Often called the “Father of the American Industrial Revolution,” he helped launch the factory system in New England. His methods fueled rapid industrialization in the early Republic.
Eli WhitneyAn American inventor known for the cotton gin and for pioneering interchangeable parts in manufacturing. His innovations helped expand plantation slavery while also fueling the rise of modern mass‑production techniques.
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Eli WhitneyEli Whitney was an American inventor best known for creating the cotton gin in 1793, which dramatically accelerated cotton processing and expanded plantation slavery. He also promoted interchangeable parts in manufacturing, a key step toward modern mass production. His inventions deeply shaped the antebellum economy and society.
abolition / abolitionism / abolitionistAbolitionism was the movement to end slavery in the United States. Rooted in Revolutionary ideals of equality and strengthened by Christian beliefs in the brotherhood of humanity, abolitionism grew throughout the early 19th century. It connected naturally to the women’s rights movement, which likewise sought equality and moral reform in American society.
American Anti-Slavery SocietyFounded in the early 1830s, this organization worked to end slavery through moral persuasion, public lectures, and printed materials. Its 1835 “postal campaign” spread antislavery literature throughout the South, provoking fierce backlash. In 1840, William Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on including women’s rights activists divided the society and reshaped the abolitionist movement.
American Colonization SocietyFormed in 1816, the Society promoted the migration of free Black Americans to Africa. Supporters ranged from antislavery reformers to slaveholders who believed free Black people threatened the racial order. The colony of Liberia was established as part of this effort, though only a small number of African Americans ultimately relocated there.
amalgamationA 19th‑century term for racial mixing or interracial marriage, often used pejoratively. Most white Americans—both North and South—opposed amalgamation and passed laws to prevent it. “Anti‑miscegenation” laws remained on the books in many Southern states well into the 20th century.
chattel principleThe idea that enslaved people were legally property—movable goods that could be bought, sold, inherited, or used as collateral. Though this principle defined slavery in the American South, earlier English common law sometimes offered limited paths to freedom, including baptism or self‑purchase.
coastal tradeA major branch of the domestic slave trade in which enslaved people—especially young men—were shipped from port cities in the Upper South to New Orleans and Gulf Coast markets. Highly visible in public auctions and shipping manifests, the coastal trade fueled abolitionist outrage and activism.
defenses of slaveryPro‑slavery advocates used biblical interpretations, economic arguments, racial theories, and claims of paternalism to justify slavery. Thinkers such as James Henry Hammond and George Fitzhugh argued that slavery was a “positive good,” asserting that Black people were suited to labor and benefited under white guardianship.
emancipationThe act of freeing enslaved people. Emancipation could occur through individual actions such as manumission or through larger political measures, culminating in the Civil War policies that ended slavery nationwide.
Gabriel's RebellionA planned 1800 uprising in Richmond, Virginia, organized by Gabriel, an enslaved blacksmith inspired by Revolutionary ideals. The plot was betrayed before it began; Gabriel and dozens of others were executed. The revolt highlighted both the influence and the limits of Revolutionary rhetoric for enslaved people.
gag ruleAdopted by the U.S. House of Representatives in 1836, this rule automatically tabled any petition or proposal related to slavery. It silenced antislavery voices in Congress until its repeal in 1844.
Fugitive Slave Act of 1793A federal law allowing slaveholders or hired agents to seize suspected runaway slaves in free states and return them to bondage. The act angered free Black communities and abolitionists, who argued it encouraged kidnapping and denied due process.
inland systemThe less visible but larger internal slave trade that moved enslaved people from the Chesapeake and Upper South to the Deep South by overland routes. This system relocated hundreds of thousands of people to cotton plantations between 1790 and 1860.
manumissionThe formal act of an enslaver freeing an enslaved person. Large waves of manumission occurred in the Chesapeake after the Revolution, influenced by changing attitudes and economic shifts. Robert Carter III’s freeing of over 500 enslaved people was among the largest individual acts of manumission in U.S. history.
peculiar institutionA widely used antebellum euphemism (⇒ a name that hides a harsher truth) for slavery, especially in the South. The term framed slavery as a regional economic necessity rather than a moral issue, helping defenders portray it as a unique, historically rooted system. Its use reflected deepening sectional divisions over the future of slavery in the United States.
"positive good" argumentA pro‑slavery theory claiming that slavery benefited enslaved people by providing care, guidance, and “civilization.” Advocates argued that enslaved people were incapable of self‑sufficiency and that slavery produced social stability and economic prosperity.
Nat Turner's RebellionIn 1831, Nat Turner—an enslaved preacher who believed he received divine visions—led a violent uprising in Virginia that killed around 60 white residents. Southern states responded with harsh new restrictions on enslaved people’s movement, assembly, and education, while Northern abolitionists used the event to highlight slavery’s brutality.
Uncle Tom’s CabinHarriet Beecher Stowe’s 1852 novel depicting the human suffering caused by slavery. It became a bestseller, galvanized antislavery sentiment in the North, and was denounced by the South as propaganda. Lincoln allegedly greeted Stowe by calling her “the little lady who wrote the book that started this great war.”
Underground RailroadA loose network of safe houses, guides, and routes that helped enslaved people escape to free states and Canada between the 1830s and the Civil War. Black and white abolitionists—including Harriet Tubman—played central roles. It became a powerful symbol of resistance and solidarity.
Elijah Parish LovejoyA Presbyterian minister and abolitionist newspaper editor who was repeatedly attacked for his antislavery publications. After relocating from Missouri to Illinois, he was murdered by a pro‑slavery mob in 1837, becoming one of the first martyrs of the abolitionist cause.
Frederick DouglassBorn enslaved in Maryland, Douglass escaped in 1838 and became one of the most influential abolitionist speakers and writers. He championed literacy as a path to freedom, published *The North Star*, attended the Seneca Falls Convention, advised Lincoln during the Civil War, and advocated for Black soldiers and emancipation. After the war, he served in several federal posts, including U.S. minister to Haiti.
William Lloyd GarrisonA leading abolitionist and editor of *The Liberator* from 1831 to 1865. Garrison rejected the Constitution for its compromises with slavery and promoted immediate, uncompensated emancipation. He co‑founded the American Anti‑Slavery Society and advocated sweeping reforms, including women’s rights and pacifism.
Grimké sistersSarah and Angelina Grimké were Southern‑born reformers who became outspoken abolitionists and early women’s rights advocates. Working with Theodore Weld, they documented the cruelty of slavery and brought women into the antislavery movement in new ways.
Sojourner TruthBorn into slavery in New York, Truth escaped in 1826 and became a prominent abolitionist and women’s rights activist. Known for her powerful speaking, including the famous “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech, she advocated for racial and gender equality throughout the mid‑19th century.
Theodore WeldA key abolitionist organizer and writer who collaborated with the Grimké sisters to expose the realities of slavery. Weld helped found the American Anti‑Slavery Society and co‑authored influential antislavery texts based on testimonial evidence.
By the 1840s, various reform movements had arisen, some of which combined or overlapped, such as women's rights and abolitionism (not all abolitionists supported women's rights, or in the same way). Other movements included religious and quasi-religious social movements, temperance, labor, as well as artistic and literary movements, that reflected the spirit of reform and social and political transformation. These included the Second Great Awakening, Mormonism and other religious cults, and transcendentalism.
Other reform movements included improving education, prisons and treatment of the insane
Note that certain Christian ideology deeply influenced these movements, as well as abolition
See also section above on Slavery
anti-CatholicismAnti‑Catholicism was widespread in early America, where most Protestants viewed the Catholic Church’s hierarchy—priests, bishops, and the pope—as incompatible with republican self‑government. Many believed Catholics owed allegiance to Rome rather than the United States, fueling suspicion and hostility. As Catholic immigration from Ireland and Germany surged in the 1830s–1850s, anti‑Catholic sentiment intensified and blended with broader nativist fears.
cult of domesticityA 19th‑century ideal describing women’s roles as centered on home, motherhood, piety, and moral guidance. Middle‑class women were expected to embody purity and submission while avoiding public political activity. As family size declined and free time increased, many women used this ideal to justify new involvements in reform, charity, education, and church work.
Declaration of SentimentsDrafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, this document modeled itself on the Declaration of Independence. It demanded women’s suffrage, equal educational opportunities, property rights, legal equality, and religious inclusion. It became the founding statement of the women’s rights movement.
Lyceum movementA grassroots adult‑education movement begun in 1826 by Josiah Holbrook. Lyceums offered lectures, debates, and cultural programs to promote lifelong learning. The “lyceum circuit” featured speakers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and even a young Abraham Lincoln, helping spread intellectual and reform ideas across America.
NativismA political and cultural movement opposed to immigration, especially Catholic immigration from Ireland and Germany. Nativists feared economic competition and believed immigrant religions and cultures threatened American republican values. The movement influenced politics and helped fuel the rise of groups like the Know‑Nothings.
Philadelphia Women's Anti-Slavery ConventionHeld in 1837, this was one of the first national gatherings of women abolitionists. Delegates organized petitions, published antislavery writings, and insisted that women had both a moral duty and a political voice in ending slavery. The convention marked a major step in women’s involvement in reform movements.
Seneca Falls ConventionHeld in 1848, this was the first women’s rights convention organized by women themselves. It issued the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for suffrage and full equality. While inspired by the abolitionist movement, Seneca Falls marked the beginning of an independent struggle for women’s political rights.
separate sphereThe belief that men and women occupied distinct roles: men in politics, business, and public life, and women in the home and family. This ideology restricted women’s participation in public affairs while elevating their domestic responsibilities. Reform-minded women challenged the doctrine as they entered activism and political debate.
suffrageThe right to vote, often called “the franchise.” Women’s suffrage became a central goal of the 19th‑century women’s rights movement, which argued that political equality was essential to full citizenship.
Temperance movementA major antebellum reform effort aimed at reducing or banning alcohol consumption. Supporters associated alcohol with poverty, crime, and family breakdown, framing temperance as both a moral and social improvement. Many temperance advocates were Protestant women active in other reform movements.
Treatise on Domestic Economy, 1841A widely read book by Catharine Beecher promoting efficient household management and women’s central role in family life. Beecher reinforced domestic ideals but also emphasized women’s education and moral influence within society.
Many social reform activists were also engaged in the Abolition movement per above entries. They are listed under Abolitionism if that was their primary contribution or focus.
Deborah SampsonDeborah Sampson disguised herself as a man under the name Robert Shirtliff and enlisted in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. She served courageously for 17 months before her identity was discovered and she was honorably discharged. After the war, she lectured about her experiences and was publicly supported by prominent figures, including Paul Revere.
Lyman BeecherA leading Presbyterian minister in the 1820s–1830s, Beecher shaped major reform movements including temperance, revivalism, and moral reform. He rejected strict Calvinist predestination and emphasized salvation through individual free will. Beecher supported the American Colonization Society and was known for outspoken anti‑Catholic views.
Charles FinneyOne of the most influential ministers of the Second Great Awakening, Finney held revivals along the Erie Canal and later taught at Oberlin College. He preached that every person was a “moral free agent” capable of choosing salvation and urged converts to take active roles in reform. Finney’s work helped link evangelical religion with abolitionism and other social movements.
Elizabeth Cady StantonA prominent women’s rights activist and abolitionist, Stanton organized the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention and drafted the Declaration of Sentiments. She advanced early arguments for women’s suffrage, legal equality, property rights, and reform of marriage laws. Stanton remained a central figure in the women’s rights movement for decades.
Transcendentalism/ Second Great Awakening[edit | edit source]
Adventist / AdventismA religious movement begun in the 1830s by preacher William Miller, who predicted Christ’s Second Coming in 1843–1844. Although the prediction did not occur, the movement reflected the democratized, revival-driven spirituality of the Second Great Awakening. It later contributed to the rise of several Adventist denominations.
Benevolent empireA network of Protestant reform societies in the 1820s–1830s that promoted moral improvement and humanitarian causes such as temperance, education, and abolition. Rooted in the Second Great Awakening, these organizations believed society could be perfected through voluntary, charitable action motivated by Christian goodwill.
Hudson Valley artistic movementAn antebellum artistic tradition, often called the Hudson River School, that emphasized dramatic landscapes, nature’s grandeur, and the spiritual qualities of the American wilderness. Artists portrayed the natural world as a source of moral insight and national identity, aligning with the era’s Romantic and transcendental currents.
Herman Melville & "Moby Dick"Melville’s novel *Moby-Dick* (1851) critiqued the extremes of individualism celebrated by some transcendentalists. Through Captain Ahab’s obsessive pursuit of the white whale, the book portrays destructive self‑will and the limits of human understanding. It stands as a counterpoint to the optimism of the transcendental movement.
NaturalismA literary and philosophical view that emphasized nature’s power, often portraying humans as shaped by environment, instinct, and forces beyond personal control. Antebellum naturalism overlapped with Romanticism and Transcendentalism in its fascination with the natural world, though it tended toward a more realistic and sometimes darker outlook.
Second Great AwakeningA widespread religious revival movement beginning in the late 18th century and flourishing in the early 19th century. Marked by emotional “revivals,” increased church membership, and democratic participation in religion, it inspired major reform movements such as temperance, abolition, and women’s rights.
Henry David ThoreauA transcendentalist writer and thinker who emphasized nature, conscience, and personal independence. His essay *Civil Disobedience* argued for nonviolent resistance to unjust laws, later influencing Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Thoreau criticized materialism, promoted simple living, and opposed slavery, leaving a lasting legacy as a defender of moral responsibility.
transcendentalismA philosophical and literary movement that encouraged individuals to “transcend,” or rise above, society’s conventions through intuition, nature, and personal insight. Related to the Second Great Awakening’s emphasis on personal spiritual experience, transcendentalism celebrated self‑reliance, creativity, and the divine spark within each individual.
Walden PondThe site where Henry David Thoreau lived simply and close to nature for two years (1845–1847) as an experiment in self‑reliance. His book *Walden* described the experience and advocated harmony with nature, introspection, and rejection of material excess.
Ralph Waldo EmersonEssayist, lecturer, and leader of the transcendentalist movement. Emerson promoted individual intuition, the spiritual unity of humans and nature, and the importance of self‑trust in works such as *Nature* and “Self‑Reliance.” He influenced generations of American writers including Thoreau and Whitman, and spoke publicly against slavery and for reform.
The Antebellum period goes all the way to the Civil War, however in the 1850s decade leading up to the Civil War, events accelerated and more direct causes for the War become apparent
American PartyAlso known as the “Know‑Nothing” Party, this nativist political movement rose in the 1850s in response to growing immigration from Ireland and Germany. The party opposed Catholic political influence and promoted restrictions on immigration and naturalization. Although it briefly gained national prominence, the slavery crisis soon overshadowed nativism and fractured the party.
Bloody KansasA violent struggle in the mid‑1850s over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free or slave state. Pro‑slavery and anti‑slavery settlers flooded the territory, sparking guerrilla warfare, raids, and political chaos. The conflict demonstrated the failure of “popular sovereignty” and foreshadowed the coming Civil War.
Compromise of 1850A legislative package designed to ease sectional tensions after the Mexican‑American War. It admitted California as a free state, allowed popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico, abolished the slave trade (but not slavery) in Washington, D.C., and enacted a harsher Fugitive Slave Act. The compromise temporarily calmed tensions but deepened sectional mistrust.
Dred Scott decisionIssued in 1857 by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, the Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott, an enslaved man who sued for freedom, was not a citizen and had no right to sue. The Court also declared Congress lacked the power to ban slavery in the territories, effectively nullifying the Missouri Compromise. Rather than settling the slavery issue, the decision inflamed sectional conflict and pushed the nation closer to war.
John BrownA radical abolitionist who believed he was called by God to end slavery through direct action. He fought in “Bleeding Kansas” and in 1859 led a raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, hoping to spark a slave uprising. Brown’s failed raid made him a martyr in the North and a symbol of violent abolitionism in the South.
Kansas-Nebraska ActThe 1854 law that created Kansas and Nebraska territories and allowed settlers to decide the slavery issue through popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise line and led directly to violent conflict in Kansas. The act shattered the Whig Party and helped launch the Republican Party.
King CottonA slogan used by Southern politicians asserting that the global importance of cotton guaranteed the South’s economic and political power. They believed Britain and France, heavily dependent on Southern cotton, would support the Confederacy if war came. The idea reflected Southern confidence but ultimately proved misguided.
Lincoln-Douglas DebatesA series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during their Illinois Senate race. The debates focused on slavery’s expansion and the meaning of popular sovereignty. Lincoln gained national recognition for his moral critique of slavery, positioning him as a rising Republican leader.
popular sovereigntyThe idea that settlers in a U.S. territory should decide whether to permit slavery. Promoted by Senator Stephen Douglas, it was intended as a democratic solution to sectional conflict. In practice, as seen in Kansas, it led to violence, electoral fraud, and deepened national tensions.
Seven southern states seceded before Lincoln's inauguration
Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina seceded after the battle at Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861
The key border states of Kentucky and Missouri had secession movements and conventions but they did not control those states, which maintained representation in the US Congress.
South Carolina
Confederate States of America | formed on Feb 9 1861, prior to Lincoln's inauguration in March; Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected president; organizing states were, in order of secession, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas; the
Terms
Crittendon Compromise | to protect states from any federal interference regarding slavery as well as re-institute the 36/30 line to the west coast; Lincoln opposed it
Ft. Sumter | location of the first hostilities between the north and south on April 12, 1861, and was the trigger for the remainder of southern states to secede; the fort was located on an island at the entrance to the Charleston, SC harbor; it was considerable but incompletely built; Federal forces moved there from another more vulnerable island fort for better protection; SC demanded the forces surrender, but President Buchanan refused and tried to reinforce it; later, Lincoln sent warships to reinforce it, but on April 12 the Southern forces began a bombardment and the Union forces surrendered and evacuated the next day
Harper's Ferry Oct 1859, radical abolitionist John Brown led an attack on a federal military arsenal (supplies, guns) at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, along the Potomac River north of Washington, DC. Brown and his 21followers hoped to start a slave rebellion; he was caught by US Marines, including Robert E. Lee; Brown was arrested and hung by the state of Virginia; southerners claimed that Brown's raid was a "natural, inevitable result" of Republican politics; Republicans denounced the raid, although radical abolitionists were thrilled, such as transcendentalist poet Ralph Waldo Emerson who called him a "saint awaiting his martyrdom"
inflation
Lincoln’s pre-war stance on slavery
March to the Sea
Minie balls
Peace Democrats
scorched earth campaign
Sherman’s March Nov-Dec 1864; also called "The March to the Sea"; after taking Atlanta, GA, Union General Tecumseh Sherman marched his army to Savannah, GA, destroying railways, supplies and supply routes, and plundering plantations and towns, called "scorched earth" campaign; considered punitive, the raid created great resentment in the South, while at the same time bolstering Union enthusiasm for the victories of Sherman's army; On Dec 26, Sherman sent a telegram to Lincoln offering Savannah as a "Christmas gift"; in Jan. 1865, Sherman headed North through the Carolinas, using the same scorched earth tactics
The Civil War led to significant dispossession and forced migration of Indian tribes west of the Mississippi. With the US military focused on the War, settlers formed militia to fight hostile native tribes, which led to abuse and at least one massacre at Sand Creek, Colorado.
Dakota rebellion 1862; following Minnesota statehood in 1858, the new state government reneged on prior agreements with the Dakota tribes to provide money and supplies in exchange for living in a designated region; Dakota appeals for fair treatment were ignored by the state, and in response the Dakota launched a surprise attack in 1862, burning farms and killing settlers, with 400 dead and thousands of whites fleeing; with help of nearby states, the government and US military responded ferociously and captured and sentenced 307 Dakota warriors to death; Lincoln authorized 38 executions (the largest mass execution in US history); during the trials, Dakota tribes were gathered in an enclosed camp at Pike Island, near St. Paul, where dozens of tribe peoples died of a measles epidemic; the US military had to protect the Dakota from attacks by local Minnesotans
Fetterman massacre 1866; in response to the Sand Creek Massacre, native tribes attacked white settlers across the middle West, including in Wyoming where in 1866 Sioux warriors killed 80 US soldiers
Indian Wars series of US Army campaigns against western tribes; after another massacre of Indians in 1870 by US soldiers (killing 173 Blackfeet), President Grant ordered a revision of US government policies towards the Native Americans, including to appoint reform-minded leaders from the abolition movement to guide official policy, leading to such things as tribal land organization, new treaties, and building of schools
Long Walk forced migration of Navajo from western to eastern New Mexico by the US military
Sand Creek Massacre 1864; Cheyenne tribes in Colorado were instructed by US government agents to move to Sand Creek for protection from hostile settlers who were aggressively attacking tribes following the Dakota rebellion of 1862; before a treaty could be signed, on Nov 29, 1864 a Colorado militia attacked the camp and killed over 100 women and children; native tribes across the west retaliated, leading to further mutual violence
"bloody shirt" from the apocryphal (likely but not true) story of Rep. Benj. Butler in 1871 holding up a blood-stained shirt on the floor of the House of Representatives, which was supposedly from a carpetbagger who had been whipped by the KKK; Butler's speech was condemned by southerners who mocked the speech for having "waved the bloody shirt" in a pathetic appeal; the term was used subsequently to accuse Republicans of trying to gain sympathy for their stances on the Civil War and Reconstruction, as well as later policies
Compromise of 1877
40 acres and a mule
Freedman’s Bureau
grandfather clause
homestead
Jim Crow laws Klu Klux Klan
land grant
literacy tests
Morill Land-Grant Act (1862)
Plessy v. Ferguson
poll taxes
Radical Republicans
Reconstruction Act of 1867
Redeemers
Comparison of post-Civil War Reconstruction Plans[edit | edit source]
Reconstruction Plans in US Government (not southern states)
President
Lincoln
Johnson
Radical Republicans
(in Congress)
Results in Congress
Degree of punishment of South
Lenient
Lenient
Punitive
Mixed
Plans
Lincoln proposed the "10 Percent Plan" under which, once 10% of voters, based on the 1860 election results, swore an oath of allegiance and accepted emancipation, the state could rejoin the union
Johnson wanted to follow Lincoln's plan but he also wanted to pardon former Confederates and allow them to reorganize their governments. He opposed the Civil Rights Act, which was passed over his veto
Wanted complete Northern military control of the south in order to establish new governments that ensured full civil rights and political freedoms for former slaves, while restricting the voting rights of Confederate leaders and soldiers
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 did not include the right to vote for freed male slaves, and along with the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which banned voting by Confederates soldiers, these acts had no meaningful enforcement mechanisms; by 1872, support for Reconstruction was waning, and Congress passed the Amnesty Act of 1872, which allowed former Confederate soldiers to vote
Results
Lincoln assassinated so we do not know what would have happened under his leadership
Johnson was a pro-Union, pro-slavery democrat, who did not care about the rights of the freed slaves
Radical Republicans were able to push through significant legislation and three Constitutional Amendments: 13th: abolished slavery; 14th: provided citizenship and protection of rights of freed slaves; 15th the vote for black men. However, southern whites were able to quickly erode the freedoms of the former slaves and the federal laws were enforced only as far as the US Army was present.
Frontier Thesis (or Turner's Thesis - see below)the late 19th century historian Frederic Jackson Turner proposed his "Frontier Thesis" in 1893 that argued that the "frontier", or push westward by Americans from the colonial period onward, greatly defined American social and political cultures, especially in terms of American individualism, egalitarianism, democracy, and pragamatism (seeking practical solutions); the Thesis argues that these cultural qualities developed uniquely in the U.S. as opposed to being imported from Europe
bimetallismthe policy of fixing the value of silver and gold so taht if one went up or down, the relative value of the other would stay the same; in the late 19th century, bimetallism was used politically to oppose the gold standard, especially by Wm. Jennings Bryan, who more largely argued for "free silver" but used bimetallism as a supposed compromise between gold and silver, although it would essential tie Gold to the decreasing value of silver, which was Bryan[s purpose
economies of scale
Coinage Act of 1873created the "gold standard" by prohibiting owners of silver "bullion" (raw silver) to be allowed to convert it into silver dollars (while allowing god buillion to be converted into gold dollars); the Act effectively ended Civil War paper money currency, which was inflationary
craft unionorganization of skilled workers in a common trade, such as carpenters or railroad workers; craft unions represent those workers across industries, but limited to that particular trade or craft
American Federation of Labor (AFL)started 1886 as alliance of craftsmen and craft unions; the first president of the AFL was Samuel Gompers; the AFL focused its unionization efforts as "business unionism" which meant it focused on "collectivism" and representation on behalf of its members but not necessarily as anti-business; as a "craft union" the AFL was mostly concerned with wages and work conditions in protection of particular job categories; the AFL did sponsor strikes, but usually more targeted than those of industrial unions
Eugene Debs (155-1926)labor union organizer and socialist who was a founding member of the IWW and candidate for president in 1912 and 1920 of the Socialist Party of America; Debs started in local Indiana railroad unions, thn helped organize one of the first national industrial unions, the American Railway Union. Debs was convicted of "sedition" (a form of treason) in violation of the Espionage Act of 1917 for speaking in public to urge resistance to the military draft during WWI; he ran from president from jail and received 3.4 percent of the vote; Warren Harding commuted his sentence in 1921 (ended the sentence but did not pardon him)
industrial unionlabor union organized around workers in a common industry, or even a company but not along lines of skills or "crafts"; i.e. all auto workers, as opposed to mechanics
industrial unionan organization of workers in a common industry and across employers; industrial unions, especially the IWW, tended to be more explicitly socialist than craft unions
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)industrial union founded 1905 that sought "solidarity" of all workers and working classes; the IWW was explicitly socialist and sought for control of industry by workers; important IWWW leaders included William "Big Bill" Haywood (miners unionizer), Daneil de Leon (socialist) and, for a time, Eugene Debs; the IWW opposed WWI and its leaders prosecuted for violation of the Espionage Act; the union declined into the 1920s
Samuel Gompers (1850-1924)founder of the AFL, and so focused his activities on the interests of craftsmen; Gompers supported the government efforts in WWI, especially in contrast ot the IWW
"Square Deal”Teddy Roosevelt's slogan to represent his agenda in support of the "common man" as against elites, called "plutocracy," i.e. industrialists, bankers, and politicians beholden (corruptly) to them; Roosevelt said that the rules of society were against common people, and he wanted them to have instead a "square deal"
16th, 17th, 18th, 19th Amendmentsstudents should be familiar with the "progressive" amendments: Income Tax (16th), Direct Election of Senators (17th), Prohibition (18th), Suffrage for Women (19th)
Bull Moose Partynickname for Teddy Roosevelt's Progressive Party campaign; comes from his statement after losing the Republican Party nomination in June, 1912 that he felt "strong as a bull moose"
BolsheviksRussian marxists led by Vladimir Lenin who seized power in the October Revolution of 1917 and renamed themselves the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; in 1903 the Bolsheviks had split with the more moderate Mensheviks who had argued for a broader socialist movement, whereas the Bolsheviks wanted a smaller party of more dedicated revolutionaries; like the later Nazis in Germany, n the Bolsheviks came to power taking a minority share of a popular vote for a government by seizing control of the majority alliance, in Russia, being the Left Socialist Revolutionaries and assorted marxist groups such as the remnants of the Menshevik party
Espionage (1917) and Sedition (1918) Actsthe 1917 Espionage Act criminalized interference with military operations or recruitment (the draft), and is still in effect, with amendments; the 1918 Sedition Act was amended the Espionage Act to add speech offenses including "disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive langage" against the United States Government, including if such language was delivered by mail; the Sedition Act was unpopular and repealed in Dec., 1920. Up to that time, about 1,500 prosecutions were carried out
"He kept us out of the war" (1916)
Jones Act (1916)
Liberty Loans
Lusitania sinking (1915)
Pancho Villa (1914)
Russian Revolution
Sussex Pledge (1916)
U-Boats
Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 (TWEA)following the US declaration of War, Congress passed this law to prohibit trade with an enemy; the law was never rescinded and exists today; in 1933, FDR used the TWEA as the legal basis for delcaring a national bank holiday, even though there was no war or actual enemy; Congress quickly passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act to add "period of national emergency" to the presidential authority under TWEA, and FDR again used the TWEA to limit gold ownership
Palmer Raids1919-1920 federal police raids on anarchists and communists; named for Wilson Administration Attorney General, Palmer, who oversaw "raids" (searches, arrests) of radical organizations, mostly socialists and anarchists; the impetus for the raids were a series of bombs mailed by anarchists in April 1919; 6000 people were arrested, and hundreds of immigrants among them were deported
Proclamation of Neutrality
prohibition
pump-priming
Red Scare"First Red Scare" 1919, caused by anarchist and socialist protests and terrorism (mailing bombs); the success of the Russian communist revolution heightened these fears, as did teh 1920 "Wall Street Bombing" which kille d40 people
the value of the New York Stock Exchange was measured in value by the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA, also known as "the DOW"; it is still used, but among other measures);
the market rose from about 150 in January of 1927 to a peak of 381 in August of 1929.
it started dropping through September into October, before its precipitous drop to 237 on Oct 29
it stabilizied in early 1930, then in May continued a long drop to its low of 41 on July 8, 1932; the DOW did not reach 381 until 1954
Black ThursdayThurs., Oct 24, 1929 "sell-off" or panic selling of stocks at the "opening bell" (when the market opened) that led to 11% drop in market value; banks, especially JP Morgan Bank and large investment firms put in high bids to drive up prices, and the market stabilized at the end of the day and Friday, Oct 25, 1929
Black MondayMon, Oct 28: after the initial panic of Thursday, with instiuttional buying to keep up prices, it seemed that the market had stabilized; however, on Monday, investors who had borrowed money to buy stocks faced "margin calls", which led to massive sell-off and an overall 13% drop in the market;
Black TuesdayTues, Oct 29, investors panicked and sold at continuously lower prices in order to recover whatever they could, to the point that there were no buyers for many stocks; the market dropped another 12% with the most "volume", or number of sales, ever up until that time; the market continued its decline into the rest of the year
"buying on margin"borrowing money to purchase stocks; margin buying allows investors to purchase more stocks than they could with their own money, so if there is much margin buying, it drives up the prices of stocks; the practice became widespread by late 1920s and led to the "speculative bubble" that burst in Oct. 1929
Hawley-Smoot Tariff
Hoovervilles
margin calla "call" is a demand for repayment of a loan to buy stocks, and "margin" refers to the difference between the amount borrowed and the value of the stock; if the stock value is less than the loan amount due, the borrower is "underwater" and will have to sell stocks at whatever price possible in order to "cover", or pay off, the loan; if there is a large sell-off with demands for "margin calls"
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO, started 1938)a combination started in 1935 as paft of the AFL and United Mine Workers, but which broke away to focus on unksilled industrial workers; the CIO was a strong ally of the FDR administration; the CIO re-merged with the AFL in 1955
fireside chatsstarting in March of 1933, Roosevelt speeches by radio to explain his polices and assure public of confidence in his Adminstration; the first chat regarded the "bank holiday" of March 1933
Sell-off of stocks sends market down significantly; JP Morgan Co. (bank) tries to stabilize the market by buying stocks in US Steel at high price (This was done in 1907, which worked; didn’t work this time)
Black Tuesday
Tues Oct 29, Oct ’29 Cras
On Monday, investors had to cover “margin calls” (to pay off the loans they used to buy stocks). To convert stocks to cash, they began to sell heavily. On Tuesday, they panicked, and sold at continuously lower prices (some stocks had no buyers at all) It was the largest sell-off of stocks in US history
Buying on margin
To borrow money to buy stocks
“margin” = a point between things. Here it’s the point between the cash the investor has and the money borrowed to pay for a stock that costs more than the cash available. The problem here is that if the market goes down, the investor cannot “cover” the loan amount and has to sell! sell! sell! to get any money out of stock (called “panic selling)
Causes of the Great Depression
Long term causes
unnoticed economic slow down in 1928
over-extension of credit to banks
over-extension of credit by banks
consumer credit overextended
loose Federal Reserve monetary police
Short term causes
Stock Market Crash, Oct 1929
Bank failures
Rising unemployment
Smoot-Hawley Tariff
tightening of Federal Reserve monetary police ** arguably the single most direct cause of the Great Depression **
Hoovervilles
Shantytowns built by homeless Americans during the Great Depression, especially 1930–1933.
Named sarcastically after President Hoover, whom many blamed for failing to stop the Depression. Built from scrap wood, cardboard, and metal on the edges of cities. Symbolized widespread poverty and loss of faith in the federal government.
Okies
1934-1940, most significant 1934
The farm crisis was due to droughts that hit the lower Midwest (OK, TX, MO, AR and eastern CO & NM) starting in 1934. The drought drove them off their farms bc there wasn’t enough water to support the crops and feed the soil (good soil blew away in the dry wind, so the region was called a “Dust Bowl”). “Oakies” refers to those from Oklahoma, Texas and other states who went to California.
Arkies
Same as Oakies but from Arkansas. They were “itinerant farmers,” moving about from place to place to find work and support their families, and many ended up in California.
Farm Holiday Association
May 1932 (during the election year), called for Farmers to stop working in order to show the rest of the country how important farming was.
Started by Milo Reno to protest the difficulties faced by farmers at the beginning of the Great Depression. Prices of farm products dropped so many farmers weren’t making money and were unable to pay loans. Like the 1880s/1890s populists, the movement was anti-banker/ anti-Wall Street. They said, “We’ll eat our [farm products] and let [the bankers and finanicers] eat their gold.”
Milo Reno
Started the Farmer’s Holiday Association
Grew up a populist, was president of a Farmer Union (collective of farmers to join together to sell farm produce at higher prices). He wanted “soft money” and inflation (i.e. did not like the “gold standard”)
Bonus Army
1932 protest movement of WWI veterans demanding early payment of their promised service bonuses.
Thousands of veterans marched on Washington, DC and built camps near the Capitol. Hoover ordered the U.S. Army (under Gen. MacArthur) to remove them; the violent eviction burned the camps and destroyed Hoover’s reputation. A major factor in his landslide defeat in 1932.
Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929 to make loans to farm organizations (not directly to farmers) and “stabilize” prices of farm products
In the late 1920s farm prices (crops & livestock) dropped due to overproduction, and farmers faced a crisis of meeting their loans, etc. In June of 1929, Congress passed an act to create the Federal Farm Bureau, which would make loans to farmers and buy farm produce in order to prop up prices. Farmers, especially in the South, were angry that President Hoover did not give the money directly to farmers, but only to “farm organizations.”
FERA
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
program to create unskilled jobs for relief; expanded by Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins; replaced by WPA in 1935.
Hawley-Smoot Tariff
Tarriff Act of 1930 (usually called Smoot-Hawley Tariff)
Passed by a Republican Congress and signed by Hoover, it significantly raised tariffs (taxes) on imports. The idea was to reduce foreign competition and “protect” US manufacturers, but it led to less trade, less economic activity, and higher prices of certain goods. It contributed to (but did not alone cause) the ongoing economic crisis that would become the “Great Depression
National Credit Corporation
1931 government “corporation” to stabilize the banking situation
Many banks were failing in 1931 (running out of money to cover deposits) and those still in business needed money to cover deposits. Called a “liquidity crisis” bc while banks loaned money to others to buy assets, the banks themselves could not produce cash from those loans to cover demands from depositors for their money back. Banks that could “cover” deposits were called “insolvent.” The Nat Credit Corp had $500 million to loan to collections of banks to keep them “afloat” (restore “liquidity”).
POUR
President’s Organization on Unemployment Relief, 1931 Hoover‑era voluntary relief organization designed to encourage private charities to help the unemployed.
Hoover believed that local communities, churches, and private charities—not the federal government—should provide relief during the Depression. POUR coordinated fundraising and publicity campaigns urging Americans to donate to local relief groups. It reflected Hoover’s philosophy of “voluntarism,” but it proved inadequate as unemployment soared past what private charity could handle.
Reconstruction Finance Corporation
1932 under Hoover, to replace the National Credit Corp
the big idea here is that the Hoover did do many things to address the financial crisis, but it did not restore confidence. While FDR did many many more things, and never resolved the crisis (the Depression lasted through to WWII), but he did make people have more confidence and did get them direct federal “relief” in the form of jobs or cash payments. Hoover’s Reconstruction Finance Corp, authorized by Congress in 1923, gave out $2 billion in loans to states and local governments. It significantly halted the banking crisis, but not completely as it only allowed for loans to banks that were not completely insolvent and that could never be able to repay their loans. Those banks continued to fail, leading to the ongoing 1933 banking crisis.
Revenue Act of 1932
Under Hoover, raised income tax rates
Increased income tax rates on the biggest earners from 25 to 63%. It also put taxes on certain goods, such as sporting goods, copper, telephones, refrigerators, and other consumer products. The idea was to raise revenue (income) for the Government. Under FDR, Congress kept and increased these taxes
Election of 1932
Nov, 1932
Both Hoover and FDR ran similar campaigns, but Hoover was unpopular and blamed for not resolving the economic crisis. FDR won in a “landslide”. Along with a switch to Democratic control of Congress, FDR came into office in March of 1933 with a clear “mandate” (recognition and expectation) to implement a new program of government intervention into the economy and country.
=== FDR Administration ===
New Deal
Term for the policies of FDR and laws passed by Congress between 1933-1938
The major laws passed under the “New Deal” include the “three Rs:” “Relief for unemployment, Recovery of the economy, and reform of the banking and financial system.” Acts of Congress including NIRA, CCC, FERA, SSA, etc. (that created the “Alphabet Agencies”) New Deal ended in 1938 bc of a new economic downturn, as well as Court Cases that allowed many FDR programs to continue. The Supreme Court had previously ruled some FDR programs unconstitutional (such as the NIRA of 1933 that controlled the economy by setting prices, limiting farm and industrial production (to increase prices), setting wages, etc.
Brain Trust
FDR’s cabinet
the group of politicians and experts in the FDR Cabinet who were called the “Brain Trust” and who were to solve the economic crisis by coming up with programs and policies to fix it.
1st New Deal
1933-1935
Largely ended when the NRIA was ruled unconstitutional, but also because the New Deal had become unpopular by as the election of 1936 approached, as it didn’t solve the Depression and it was very burdensome economically (regulations, price controls, etc.) So the FDR administration and Congress launched a new set of programs to prop up the Administration and New Deal programs. A new set of laws were passed in response to the Supreme Court decisions that outlawed the NRIA and are referred to as the ”Second New Deal” . Some of these are Social Security Act (SSA) & NLRA (National Labor Relations Act or Wagner Act, both enacted in 1935
3 R’s
Term for the purpose of the New Deal program started in 1933
“Relief for unemployment, Recovery of the economy, and reform of the banking and financial system.”
First Hundred Days
FDR’s program to fix the Depression with a series of laws and federal actions to be enacted and implemented in the “first 100 days” of his Administration, starting March 4, 1933.
Bank holiday
A government action to close the banks to stop “bank runs” (people all trying to get their money out at once, when the banks did not have the funds to “cover” the deposits and pay depositors back in full). The bank holiday put a stop to the “bank runs”. The state of Michigan as first to issue a bank holiday on Feb 14, 1933, and FDR issued an order for the entire nation to have a 4-day “bank holiday” (shutdown) starting Mar 6, 1933 (two days after his inauguration). FDR then asked Congress to pass the “Emergency Banking Act,” which it did on Mar 9, and which stopped the “run” and panick.
Repeal of prohibition
21st amendment 1933
The 18th amendment, which banned the sale of alcohol, was unpopular and led to criminal activity in illegal sale of alcohol. The amendment authorized states and the federal government to regulate the sale of alcohol. Note that Hoover did not support repealing the 18th amendment, and that contributed to his unpopularity. You should also know the 20th amendment which changed the date of inauguration and start of the new Congress from March 4 to Jan 20. This shortened the time between the Nov. presidential election and the new presidency that followed in March, as the Depression worsened significantly between FDR’s Nov 1932 election and taking the office in March, 1933, and during that time Hoover had no political authority to effectively lead the country (as is the case with all “Lame Duck” presidents, who are just serving out the rest of their final term).
Fireside Chats
FDR radio addresses to the nation, which he started during the bank crisis in March of 1933 when he became president. He used the “chats” to explain his policies and convince the nation not to panic over the crisis.
Economics of scarcity
?
Not sure what your teacher means by this, but it seems to refer to the idea that “scarcity” (the lack of something) creates increases in price. Regarding the New Deal, the government paid farmers not to farm certain crops in order to keep from adding more crops to the market, thus creating scarcity and raising prices for that crop (thus making more money for the farmers who still sold the crop).
Going off of the gold standard
1933
The “gold standard” is the idea that U.S. currency (dollars) is “backed by gold” – which means that anyone could exchange a dollar for its value in gold. But the loans to banks in 1933 and the New Deal programs meant that the government was spending more money than it had in gold, so FDR outlawed possession of gold, thereby ending the “gold standard.”
Part of the “100 Days” at beginning of FDR’s term that started in March, 1933. It was an urgent response to the banking crisis (“run on the banks” to get money out) as part of his “Bank Holiday” order. The Act provided money to the banks so they could have enough funds to “cover” (pay) for deposits. The money was given to the banks by the Federal Reserve (a kind of national bank which issues currency) using “collateral” of any asset the banks had, which was mostly the value of things the banks had loaned money for (which was why they couldn’t “cover” the deposits during the bank runs). Since the Federal Reserve was giving “paper money” to the banks, the FDR government had to outlaw possession of gold money (coins and gold bars used for money) so that people couldn’t demand gold for the paper money. Basically, this allowed the Federal Reserve to issue paper money it did not have backed up by actual gold of equal value (effectively ended the “gold standard” by which every dollar was supposed to be able to be converted to gold or silver on demand).
NIRA/NRA
National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 and the National Recovery Administration.
Law and administration to regulate the economy and economic activity, including wages, work hours, prices, and sales.
1933 Ruled unconstitutional in 1935
Alphabet Agencies
The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II while others remain in operation or formed into different programs. They included the following
AAA
Agricultural Adjustment Administration - 1933 New Deal program to raise farm prices by reducing agricultural production.
Paid farmers to limit acreage or destroy surplus crops/livestock to create “scarcity” and raise prices. Criticized for destroying food during a time of hunger. Ruled unconstitutional in 1936 (U.S. v. Butler) but replaced by a revised AAA.
CCC
1933, Civilian Conservation Corps
New Deal program to provide jobs directly by the federal government. People joined the “Corps” and were assigned to certain projects such as working in or building parks, working on roads and bridges, building drains and dams, etc. The CCC also provided room and board to enrollees (food and shelter). Ii was a very popular program bc it “put people to work”
CWA
Civil Works Administration, 1933–1934 emergency New Deal program providing temporary winter jobs.
Created millions of short-term public works jobs (road repair, school improvements, ditch digging). Ended after one winter because FDR feared it was too expensive and too close to “make‑work,” but it provided crucial relief during the harsh winter of 1933–34.
FCA
Farm Credit Administration, 1933
The farming crisis was financial (loans, buying seeds, storing and selling crops/livestock) and commercial (prices, over-production, then drought, etc.)
FSA
Farm Security Administration
helped poor farmers by a variety of economic and educational programs; some programs still exist as part of the Farmers Home Administration.
FERA
1933, Federal Emergency Relief Administration
If so, it was a Federal Agency created to provide direct cash assistance to states to create jobs through the states. It was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). FERA was the first New Deal direct assistance program. The program was targeted towards unemployment relief and provided its funds
FDIC-Glass-Steagall Act
1933: Glass-Steagall = 1933 Banking Act Federal Deposit Insurance Company.
The Act restricted the kind of institutions that could take bank deposits to commercial banks (keeping stock investment firms from taking deposits from the public), thus separating banks from investment and other financial companies. The law also created the FDIC to provide a government guarantee of bank depositis up to a certain amount. This helped restore public confidence in the banking system. (A similar law was signed by Hoover in 1932, but the law was expanded under FDR: so we see that Hoover tried to alleviate the crisis and fix the economy and banking system; FDR did much more,
FHA
Federal Housing Administration. Created in 1934 to insure home mortgages and encourage home construction.
Provided federal insurance for bank mortgages, lowering down payments and making homeownership more accessible. Standardized mortgage terms (like 20–30‑year loans). Criticized later for redlining practices, but central to expanding middle‑class homeownership.
HOLC
1933, Home Owners' Loan Corporation
government corporation to help home owners refinance expensive loans for houses if they fell seriously behind in their loans or were facing foreclosure (losing the property for non-payment of the loan).
NYA
National Youth Administration (NYA), 1935
A federal program that focused on providing work for students ages of 16 to 25. Ended in 1943.
PWA
1933, Public Works Administration
Government program to finance large infrastructure projects in order to provide jobs. PWA funded construction of dams, schools, hospitals, airports, etc.
REA
Rural Electrification Administration
one of the federal executive departments of the United States government charged with providing public utilities (electricity, telephone, water, sewer) to rural areas in the U.S. via public-private partnerships. Still exists.
RA
Resettlement Administration
resettled poor tenant farmers; replaced by Farm Security Administration in 1935.
SEC
Securities and Exchange Commission, Created in 1934 to regulate the stock market and prevent abuses.
Created in 1934 to regulate the stock market and prevent abuses.
Taylor Grazing Act
1934
Allowed much federal land to be regulated by the Dept. of Interior in order to allow for controlled use of land by ranchers (farm animals). Use of land in the Midwest for livestock contributed to the Dust Bowl, so the government wanted to regulate land use to keep animals from depleting the soil
TVA
1933 New Deal agency created to modernize the Tennessee Valley through dam construction and regional planning.
Provided cheap hydroelectric power, flood control, soil conservation, and jobs in one of the poorest regions of the U.S. A major example of federal intervention in regional economic development. Still exists today.
WWII was the last conflict entered by official Declaration of War by Congress
all other post-WWII "wars" have been without actual declaration of war
the U.S. has entered most of these wars through a combination of Executive Action and Congressional approval, either for a military action or funding thereof
a key component of post-WWII US History for students to grapple with is the dramatic change to worldwide involvement and/or adventurism and the various justifications for them
students should understand American "hegemony" and reaons for American worlwdide dominance and the extent to which it may be considered economic, political cultural imperialism
third parties represent political movements that the major parties do not accommodate
or a split within them
elections through to the 1830s had multiple candidates from the same party, so were not technically "third parties)
or they were divided geographically and/or over a particular issue or political position
Party
Election
% of Popular Vote
Notes
Anti-Masonic Party
1832
7.8%
opposed "Freemasonry" (elitist secret society that was opposed by mainstream religous groups);
the movement started wit hthe "Morgan affair", when a former Mason show spoke out against the society was murdered
Freemasons were accused of secretly controlling the government
Liberty Party
1844
2.3%
abolitionist, anti-slavery party
Free Soil
1848
10.1%
opposed expansion of slavery into new territories
former president Martin Van Buren was candidate in 1848
formed after the Mexican-American War over concerns about the expansion of slavery
the Free Soil party was mostly former Whigs who joined the Republican Party when they merged in 1854
1852
4.9%
Know Nothing (American Party)
1856
21.6%
anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic
largely made up of Whigs after the collapse of that party
the party also appealed to reformers, standing for rights of women, regulation of industry and labor, prefiguring the progressive movement
former president Millard Filmore was candidate
Four-way split
1860
Republican (Abraham Lincolon): 39.8%
Southern Democrat (John Breckinridge): 18.1%
Constitutional Union (John Bell): 12.6%
Democratic (Stephen Douglas): 29.5%
Liberal Republican
1872
43.8%
candidate Horace Greeley, publisher of the New York Tribune
opposed President Grant as corrupt and his Reconstruction policies as too harsh (wanted removal of US Army from the South)
opposed the high tariff and promoted civil service reform
the Democratic party had no national organization, so Greeley hoped to attrack their vote, but failed
Greenback Party
1876
0.99%
soft money platform, originally associated with the Grange (agricultural organization, cooperative)
anti-monopoly, anti-railroads
1880
3.35%
Prohibition Party
1884
1.5%
single issue: temperance
persisted longer than most third-party movements and influenced larger politics, with ultimate victory in the 18th amendment
1888
2.2%
1896
.094%
1900
1.51%
1904
1.92%
1912
1.38%
1916
1.19%
Populist Party
1892
8.5%
agrarian, anit-business/railroad movement
pro-soft money
Socialist Party
1904
2.98%
Eugene Debs was the candidate in 1904, 1908, 1912 & 1920 elections
1908
2.83%
1912
6%
1916
3.19%
1920
3.41%
1932
2.23%
Progressive Party
1912
27%
Teddy Roosevelt's party after split with Republican Party following its convention in 1912
Roosevelt took more votes than the Republican incumbant Taft (23.2%)
with the Republican vote split, Wilson won with 41.8% of the popular voate
Progressive
1924
16.6%
a different organization form the Teddy Roosevelt's Progressive Party, which he abandoned after 1912 (he was nominated in 1916 but refused)
former Republican Robert La Follette, a progressive how refused to back Roosevelt, reformed the party in 1924
Dixiecrat
Progressive
1948
2.4%
2.4%
independent movements that were splinter factions from FDR's Democratic coalition that fell apart under Truman
Dixiecrats were southern segregationists
Progressives were FDR Democrats led by his former Vice President Henry Wallace
American Independent
1968
13.5%
led by southern Democrat George Wallace, populist, segregationist governore of Alabama who opposed Johnson's support of the Civil Rights movement
John Anderson (Independent candidate)
1980
6.6%
Republican John Anderson split from the Republican Party and ran as a "moderate" alternative to Reagan
Ross Pero (Independent candidate/ Reform Party)
1992
18.9%
populist businessman Ross Perot opposed Bush and Clinton and gained widespread support
in 1996, Perot ran on the Reform Party ticket, which he formed after 1992
1996
8.4%
Green Party
2000
2.74%
Envronmentalist and consumer activist Ralph Nader ran on the Green Party ticket and likely threw the close 2000 election to Bush, as he drew support from the Democratic left
Libertarian
2016
3.28%
Libertarian party candidate Gary Johnson gained national support for his opposition to Obama's regulatory state and in opposition to Donald Trump's candidacy as a Republican
Robert F. Kennedy (independent candidate)
2024
?
son of former Senator and assassinated 1968 presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy
running as a third-party alternative to Biden and Trump
French company had Royal grant for trading rights to French colonies in Americas
to cover French government debt over Louis XIV's wars, the government allowed the compan to issue paper money backed by national debt
speculation in shares of the company led to more paper money issued, which was then put back into company shares, which led to the second largest bubble in economic history ($6.5 trillion peak value in current dollars, behind only the Dutch East India Company bubble)
Panic of 1792
1792
Short-lived panic caused by sudden credit expansion following the formation of the Bank of the United States, which led to land speculation
a group of bankers tried to drive up pricies of securities (stocks, contracts) but failed to meet their loans, causing a bank run
Alexander Hamilton stabilized the market with stock purchases by the government
Land bubble 1796
1996
Land speculation bubble that collapsed following specie payments suspension by the Bank of England, caused by a rush of bank withdrawals in England out of fear of a war with France
the imnpact and connection of London banks to the American economy worried
Panic of 1819
1819-1821
Financial crisis sparked by land speculation bubble, excess paper money, and issuance of bank notes unbacked by gold by the Second Bank of the United States
after annulment of the First National Bank in 1811, states granted charters to banks, many of which were speculative and underfinanced
the Second Bank of the United States, established in 1816, reacted to the crisis by first expanding than drastically retracting credit, which exacerbated the crisis
as Europe recovered from the Napoleonic Wars, its agricultural product increased and led to price drops, which hurt American producers, who, in turn, were unable to pay back loans
the Panic came amidst implementation of the "American System" of canal and road building and tariffs, which were blamed for the downturn
Panic of 1837
1837-1843
Major depression in which prices, profits, wages, and financial activity was severely curtailed
led to mass unemployment
impacted westward expansion and led t collapse in agricultural prices, especially cotton
started with bank runs in New York when investors demanded their deposits from banks who could not back then in gold or silver
was the worst financial crisis up until the Great Depression
the panic followed a speculative boom that was fueled by land sales, cotton exports, and extensive inflows of silver from the US, Mexico and China
President Jackson's dismantling of the Second Bank of the United States led to a disorderly unwinding of its assets and operations;
however, the Bank itself contributed to the speculative bubble through issuance of paper money and loose oversight
the Jackson administration's "Specie Circular of 1836," which was intended to halt speculation in land sales, dried up credit and helped spark the Panic
Panic of 1857
1857-1859
National financial crisis sparked by British change in requirements for gold and silver reserves for paper money
the influx of gold from the California Gold Rush greatly expanded the money supply but was also inflationary and led to excessive speculation
in the US, a finanical panic followed the collapse of a major investment company (Ohio Life Insurance and Trust)
speculation in railroads had exploded, and many were fraudulent, and after the Ohio Life company failed, prices collapsed
grain prices also experienced a bubble in the mid 1850s, which led to farmland speculation, both of which also collapsed in the Panic
Crédit Mobilier scandal
1864-1867
A railoard company created by the Union Pacific Railroad to build the eastern portion of the transcontinental railroad inflated its costs by $44 million dollars and paid bribes to politicians for laws and regulatory ruilings in its favor
the scandal was broken by a newspaper during the 1874 presidential campaign and led to a political crisis for certain members of Congress and the Republican Party in general
which along with other
Panic of 1873
1873-1877
bank runs in New York
financial crisis due to inflation and speculative investments especially in railroads
huge discoveries of silver in the west led to decline in the value of silver and the "demonitization of silver" in 1873 (Coinage Act of 1873), which lowered silver prices and thus impacted anyone invested in silver and silver mining
it led to a reduction in the money supply and higher interest rates, which hurt debtors, especially farmers
impacted Europe
started the "Long Depression," 1873-1879
Panic of 1893
1893-1897
Econoic depression that was sparked by the failure of an Argentine bank, Baring Brothers, which collapsed over crops price collapse,
which led to a run on American gold reserves by European investors who were facing losses there and in South Africa and Australia
a railroad company collepse just before Grover Cleveland's 2nd inauguration led him to ask Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which had forced the Government to purchase Silver in order to prop up its value, which was depleting the Government's gold reserves
bank and railroad failures followed, with subsequent securities (stocks) and commodities price drops
in 1895 the Government issued "Treasury bonds" which were purchased, by arrangement, by banks, especially the Morgan Bank of New York, but which helped stabilize Government gold reserves and general economic confidence
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