|
|
Line 14: |
Line 14: |
| ** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]] | | ** [[List of word parts of speech & their grammar rules]] |
|
| |
|
| '''NOTE''': this page was created for the SAT Paper Test, which was retired by College Board as of 2024. | | '''NOTE: this page was created for the SAT Paper Test, which was retired by College Board as of 2024.''' |
|
| |
|
| * the approaches may be different for the Digital Test | | * the approaches may be different for the Digital Test |
Line 109: |
Line 109: |
|
| |
|
| == Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules == | | == Quick start guides for punctuation & grammar rules == |
| * see further below for more on all these concepts and rules in the quick start guides | | * for quick review of grammar and punctuation basics go to [[SAT Reading and Writing quick start grammar and punctuation guide]] |
| | | * for more in-depth review of concepts and rules, see below. |
| === Verbs quick start guide ===
| |
| | |
| * '''verb'''
| |
| ** indicates an action, existence or occurrence
| |
| *** ''I do, I am, I went''
| |
| ** is the basis of a predicate
| |
| *** predicate = the action and its result/s, modifier/s or object/s
| |
| * for the SAT, identify if a verb is '''''finite''''' or '''''non-finite'''''
| |
| | |
| ==== Finite verb ====
| |
| | |
| * has a subject
| |
| * finite verbs form the core of a sentence or clause
| |
| * "is" and "are" are finite verbs
| |
| ** = conjugation of the verb "to be", which is a linking verb
| |
| ** IDENTIFY them in a sentence, then match them to their subject
| |
| * dependent clauses have finite verbs, so identify the subject-verb match in a dependent clause in order not to confuse it with the subject-verb match of the main or independent clause
| |
| ** ex. ''The thing I like most about her is her sunny attitude''
| |
| *** S-V of main clause = Thing + is
| |
| *** S-V of relative clause = I + like
| |
| | |
| ==== Non-finite verb ====
| |
| | |
| * does not have a subject
| |
| * non-finite verbs act as a noun (gerund), adjective (past or present participle) or infinitive ("to" form of a verb)
| |
| * for the SAT, the most important non-finite verb is the present participle adjective
| |
| ** = the '''-ing''' form of a non-finite verb acting as an adjective
| |
| *** note that non-finite verbs acting as nouns, called gerunds, are also in the '''-ing''' form of the verb
| |
| ** present participles are used to add information to an independent clause
| |
| *** ''ex. Driving carefully, she made it home safely in the storm''
| |
| **** = "She drove carefully in the storm. She made it home safely."
| |
| **** we can combine those two sentences into a more compact sentence by using the non-finite verb "driving"
| |
| *** note that participle phrases are attached to an independent clause by a comma and not a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
| |
| | |
| === Punctuation quick start guide ===
| |
| Reminder about abbreviations =
| |
| | |
| * IC = independent clause
| |
| * DC = dependent clause
| |
| * Phr = phrase
| |
| * S= subject (noun)
| |
| * V = verb
| |
| * O = object (noun)
| |
| | |
| ==== periods . ====
| |
| * '''periods''' separate sentences
| |
| * periods do '''ONE''' thing =
| |
| # separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
| |
| click EXPAND to see what PERIODS do & how to eliminate using the rule:
| |
| <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| <u>periods</u>:
| |
| * periods separate grammatically correct and complete thoughts that are distinct sentences
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** if the sentence is grammatically or logically incomplete, the period is wrong
| |
| *** i.e., SUBJECT VERB and an object or subject complement if needed to make sense
| |
| | |
| * if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| * note that "interjection" (a quick remark or interruption) or "imperative" (a command) VERBS contain an implied SUBJECT
| |
| * so they can create a complete sentence or independent clause:
| |
| | |
| * ex.
| |
| ** "Go to the store." = "[you] Go to the store."
| |
| ** "Stop!" = "[you} Stop!"
| |
| * for the SAT the imperative may come in the form of a command to the reader, such as:
| |
| ** "Take this idea, for example."
| |
| *** = "[you] Take this idea, for example." << as a sentence or independent clause
| |
| ==== semicolons ; ====
| |
| * combine independent clauses for comparison, contrast or some relation between them
| |
| ** as opposed to periods which completely separate the ideas/ thoughts
| |
| * semicolons do (almost) '''ONE''' thing:
| |
| # combine ICs
| |
| * note that semicolons can -- but rarely:
| |
| ** separate a list of IC's:
| |
| *** as in "IC; IC; IC; IC."
| |
| ** a semicolon may also be used as a "super comma" in order to emphasize separate elements in a list of common examples, usually following a colon:
| |
| *** as in, "IC: this; that; the other thing."
| |
| **** ex. "''On our trip, we will visit tons of places: in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''
| |
| **** the "super comma" does not have to follow a colon, so we could write:
| |
| ***** ''"On our trip, we will visit tons of places, including in Africa, Egypt & Morrocco; in Europe, Greece and Italy; and in Asia, Turkey"''
| |
| *** the "super comma" is rarely used in practice and on the SAT test (see May QAS 2022 Writing section question no. 35 )
| |
| click EXPAND to see what SEMICOLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
| |
| <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| <u>semicolons</u>:
| |
| # combine two ICs
| |
| #* "School is boring; I should go anyway"= IC; IC
| |
| * can also create a list of IC's (IC; IC; IC; IC.)
| |
| ** "School is boring; I already know that stuff; I should go anyway" = "IC; IC; IC
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** must have IC or complete sentences & thoughts on both sides of the semicolon
| |
| *** i.e., if the two clauses on either side of the semicolon would not stand on their own as grammatically complete sentences and thoughts, the semicolon is incorrect
| |
| ** if a period and a semicolon are both possible answers, they are both wrong
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| ==== commas , ====
| |
| * create pauses
| |
| * commas do '''FIVE''' things:
| |
| click EXPAND to see what COMMAS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
| |
| <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| <u>commas</u>:
| |
| # combine IC, DC, or DC, IC
| |
| #* or IC, Phr or Phr, IC
| |
| #** ex. "He ate fast, which upset his stomach" = IC, DC
| |
| #** ex. "After eating too fast, his stomach was upset" = Phr, IC
| |
| #*** = prepositional phrase, independent clause
| |
| # combine ICs
| |
| #* ''but only with a coordinating conjunction'' (FANBOYS), i.e., IC, and IC
| |
| #* ex.: "IC, and IC" or "IC, but IC"
| |
| #** "They played hard, and they won big" = IC, and IC
| |
| #** "They played hard, but they lost" = IC, but IC
| |
| # separate lists (subjects, verbs, objects)
| |
| #* ex.: S, S and S V, V O, O and O
| |
| # act parenthetically
| |
| #* ", .... ," (like these parentheses)
| |
| #** The movie, which was about Ancient Rome, was very informative" = S, .... , V
| |
| # introduce a direct quotation
| |
| #* ex. "The judge declared, "Guilty!"
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** commas can only separate a S-V or V-O if acting parenthetically (see below for examples)
| |
| ** commas can NOT combine two ICs without a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
| |
| ** 1 or more commas can separate multiple subjects, verbs or objects from one another (called "compound" subjects, verbs, objects)
| |
| *** "Joey, Joella and Josephina jumped for joy"
| |
| **** = a single comma between the subject "Joey" and its verb "jumped" because the comma creates a list and not a grammatical separation of the subject and verb
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| ==== colons : ====
| |
| * distinguish additional information following an IC, usually a list, explanation, or example to clarify or extend the idea presented in the IC
| |
| * colons = do '''ONE''' thing:
| |
| # extend or provide examples in support of a prior IC
| |
| #* i.e., a colon MUST be preceded by an IC
| |
| #* i.e., colons follow a complete statement with an extended idea or example/s
| |
| #** ''The prosecutor presented the evidence: a fingerprint, the weapon, and a written confession"''
| |
| #*** = IC: list
| |
| #* just about any grammatical form can follow a colon, including
| |
| #** an IC, phrase, exclamation, multiple ICs with semicolons or coordinating conjunctions
| |
| #** a direct quotation (if that quotation is a complete sentence and if the colon is preceded by an IC
| |
| #** exceptions arenthat colons are not followed by
| |
| #*** another colon
| |
| #*** a dependent clause that modifies the independent clause prior to the colon
| |
| * colons <U>DO NOT</u>:
| |
| ** follow a dependent clause
| |
| ** interrupt a clause or requisite (essential, required) or connected elements in a sentence
| |
| *** ex., "''I went to the store''': because''' I needed some supplies''"
| |
| **** the colon here interrupts the connection between "I went to the store" and the reason why, "because..."
| |
| *** or "''She knew''': that''' it was the right thing to do''"
| |
| **** the colon here interrupts the requisite relative pronoun "that" and the clause it creates
| |
| *** or "''They have two ideas: which are both innovative"''
| |
| **** "which" creates a DC that modifies the IC prior to the colon, so it cannot be separated from that IC by a colon
| |
| ***** (a comma separating the IC and DC is okay)
| |
| ** have multiple colons in a sentence
| |
| click EXPAND to see what COLONS do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
| |
| <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| <u>colons</u>:
| |
| # extend or provide examples following an IC
| |
| * what follows the colon can be in any grammatical form (IC, DC, phrase)
| |
| ** except a conjunction (as in : I bought shoes: and some socks (= incorrect)
| |
| ** or a required (requisite) phrase or clause ("I bought shoes: that fit" = incorrect)
| |
| ** colons are usually followed by a list or an example
| |
| ** a colon may set up a direct quotation, such as:
| |
| *** ''The lawyer claimed the accusation was wrong: "He's innocent!"'' = IC: IC
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** if NOT preceded by an IC, eliminate the colon
| |
| ** if another possible answer is a dash that is acting like a colon, then both cannot be correct, so eliminate
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| ====dashes -- ====
| |
| * separate ideas within a sentence, either parenthetically or like a colon
| |
| * dashes do '''TWO''' things:
| |
| # act like a colon
| |
| # act like parentheses (...) = -...-
| |
| click EXPAND to see what DASHES do & how to eliminate using the rule/s:
| |
| <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| <u>dashes</u>:
| |
| # act like a colon
| |
| #* ex. "She left stuff behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil" = IC -- list
| |
| #* the dash is often used for emphasis (as opposed to a colon, which adds information)
| |
| # act like parentheses (...) = -...-
| |
| #* The stuff that she left behind -- a plastic ring, a cheap phone, and a pencil -- wasn't that expensive"
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** if there is NOT another dash in the sentence, then the dash is NOT acting parenthetically (...)
| |
| ** if not acting like parentheses, and there is NOT an IC preceding the dash, eliminate
| |
| ** if another possible answer is a colon and the dash is not acting like a parentheses, then both cannot be correct
| |
| ----------------------------------------------------------
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| === Apostrophes quick start guide ===
| |
| * '''apostrophes''' do two things:
| |
| ** create contractions ("it's" from "it is" or "can't" from "can not")
| |
| ** show possession
| |
| *** nouns possess nouns and nouns can only possess nouns (not verbs)
| |
| *** punctuation can NOT separate the possessor noun from the possessed noun
| |
| *** adjectives may separate the two nouns, as in "The cowboy's fast horse"
| |
| ** possessive apostrophes singular v plural:
| |
| *** ''''s''' for singular nouns ("that dog's toys") and '''s'''' for plural nouns ("those dogs' toys")
| |
| * elimination:
| |
| ** if punctuation or a verb follow the possessor noun, eliminate (see examples below)
| |
| * note: use of an apostrophe to create a contraction with a noun and the verb, "to be" is informal and not measured on the SAT
| |
| ** ex., "winning's good" for "winning is good" is informal
| |
| | |
| === Conjunctions quick start guide ===
| |
| * '''conjunctions''' combine words, phrases, and clauses
| |
| ** '''coordinating conjunction''' (CJ)
| |
| *** combines ICs (FANBOYS)
| |
| **** ''I was hungry, so I bought a burger''
| |
| * note: the word '''however''' is NOT a conjunction,
| |
| ** therefore it must be combined with another CJ or a semicolon if combining two ICs
| |
| ** '''subordinating conjunction''' (SJ)
| |
| *** = turns an IC into a DC by requiring additional ideas to complete the thought of the clause
| |
| *** ex. "I was hungry, so I bought a burger" = two IC w/ a CC
| |
| *** whereas, if we use the CS "since" = Since I was hungry, I bought a burger"
| |
| **** = DC, IC ("Since I was hungry is not a complete thought, therefore it is a DC, or subordinate clause)
| |
| * '''requisite or necessary clause or phrase''' (Phr)
| |
| ** usually, when the SC follows the IC, there is not a comma
| |
| ** the subordinating conjunction becames a relative conjunction | |
| *** ''We couldn't play '''when it rained'''''
| |
| ** just as SV or SVO are not separated by punctuation (because they are necessary or required of each other to make sense):
| |
| *** some clauses and phrases are requisite or necessary to complete a thought, which means they are not separated from the main clause by punctuation
| |
| *** ex. "I bought the shoes that were on sale" << "that were on sale" is necessary to the idea that "I bought" particular shoes
| |
| ** see "Relative clause" below for more on essential and non-essential sentence elements
| |
| | |
| === Prepositions quick start guide ===
| |
| * '''prepositions'''
| |
| ** include ''about, by, from, near, of, on'' , etc.
| |
| * prepositions create a relationship between nouns
| |
| ** the nouns or other words that follow the preposition are called a "prepositional phrase" ("about something I once knew")
| |
| * prepositional phrases establish a relationship with a noun or as part of a subject-verb clause:
| |
| ** ex. adding information to a subject noun: "The ideas of the professor are novel."
| |
| ** ex. adding information to a subject-verb: "The professor was educated at Yale."
| |
| * for the SAT, only prepositions that come before the verb matter
| |
| * the noun in prepositional phrases are '''NEVER the subject of a sentence'''
| |
| ** elimination:
| |
| *** for subject-verb matching, the preposition/ prepositional phrase is NOT the subject
| |
| **** ex. "Books about sailing are fun" and not "Books about sailing is fun"
| |
| ***** "about" = a preposition, so "sailing" is not the subject and the verb is therefore matched to the plural "books"
| |
| | |
| === Restrictive elements quick start guide ===
| |
| | |
| * a "restrictive" element is a sentence part that is not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or other punctuation
| |
| * restrictive elements include:
| |
| ** '''subject - verb - object''' (or subject complement)
| |
| *** are not separated from one another by punctuation
| |
| **** S V O
| |
| ***** cannot be separated from one another by punctuation, ex.:
| |
| ***** ''SoHo, is fun to say, and to visit << incorrect''
| |
| ***** ''SoHo is fun to say and to visit'' << correct
| |
| **** but could be separated by a parenthetical phrase or clause:
| |
| ***** ''SoHo, a neighborhood in New York, is fun to say and to visit''
| |
| ***** ''SoHo, which is fun to say, is fun to visit''
| |
| ** '''adjectives and adverbs'''
| |
| *** are not separated from the noun or verb they modify by punctuation
| |
| **** ''That is one big, elephant!'' << incorrect
| |
| **** ''That is one big, elephant!'' << correct
| |
| *** <u>exception</u>: could be a list of coordinate adjectives that are separated by a comma:
| |
| **** ''That is one big, angry elephant!''
| |
| *** or, could be separated by a parenthetical element:
| |
| **** ''That is one big -- and I mean big! -- elephant''
| |
| ** '''possessive nouns'''
| |
| *** are not separated from the noun they possess by punctuation
| |
| **** ''That bird flew right by my friend's, head'' << incorrect
| |
| **** ''That bird flew right by my friend's head'' << correct
| |
| *** <u>exception</u>: could be part of a list of adjective:
| |
| **** ''That bird flew right by my friend's big, old head''
| |
| *** note: see rules below for possessives
| |
| ** '''prepositional phrases'''
| |
| *** are not separated from the noun or verb they modify
| |
| ****''The book, on that table is interesting'' << incorrect
| |
| **** ''The book on that table is very interesting'' << correct
| |
| ** '''relative clauses beginning with "that"'''
| |
| *** note that some "restrictive relative clauses" may also begin with the relative pronouns, ''which, who, whose'', etc.
| |
| *** but relative clauses starting with "'''that'''" <u>are always restrictive</u> and thus are not separated from the word or sentence part they modify by punctuation
| |
| * <u>EXCEPTION</u>: parenthetical elements
| |
| ** only parenthetical elements with a pair of ''parentheses, commas or dashes'' may separate restrictive elements
| |
| ** the reason is that parenthetical elements are ungrammatical -- they exist OUTSIDE of the grammatical construction of a sentence
| |
| *** thus they can intrude upon a sentence
| |
| *** but they ALWAYS have paired punctuation, commas, dashes or parentheses, that isolate them from the rest of the sentence
| |
|
| |
|
| == BIG IDEAS == | | == BIG IDEAS == |