Grammar for high school admissions tests: Difference between revisions

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(Created page with "== HSPT Usage section rules == === Comma === does 6 things: 1. combine ICs (w/ cc) 2. combine phrases or DC w/ IC 3. create lists 4. set up quotation (first word of the equation is capitalized) 5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.) ex. "Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice."   "Steve, who is my neibhbro, is not very nice" 6. separate dates and place names === apostrophe === does 3 things: 1. create possessives Owen's...")
 
 
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== HSPT Usage section rules ==
General notes about high school admissions tests grammar/ usage sections


=== Comma ===
* given 4 possible answers, if you see that an answer is clearly wrong, then you know that the other possible answers are correct
does 6 things:
* therefore, you can use the 3 correct answers as examples of correct usage/grammar on other questions


1. combine ICs (w/ cc)
== Sentence ==


2. combine phrases or DC w/ IC
=== sentence ===


3. create lists
* = a grammatically complete thought
** contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject)
** makes a complete thought
*** ''The dog plays.''
**** as opposed to ''Since the dog plays  <<'' not a complete thought
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases'''
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb)
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
*** ex.:''Go home!''  = ''[you] Go home!''
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test


4. set up quotation
* see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs


(first word of the equation is capitalized)
== Clause ==
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb'''


5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause (IC)'''
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause (DC)'''


ex. "Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice."
=== independent clause (IC) ===
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
** ex. '''''The dog plays happily''', since I gave him a bone''
*** "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
*** "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.


  "Steve, who is my neibhbro, is not very nice"
==== coordinating conjunction ====


6. separate dates and place names
* = FANBOYS
* "coordinates" like sentence parts
* combines
** ICs, nouns and nouns, verbs and verbs, DCs and DCs, etc.
*** it always joins "coordinate" or like sentence parts
* note that transition words are NOT coordinating conjunctions
** ''as ,however, nevertheless, etc.'' ARE NOT coordinating conunctions
** they are conjunctive adverbs
*** which means that they set up a contrast or comparison of verbs / predicates
** RULE: however is NOT  coordinating conjunction
** so do not use it to combines ICs
*** ''I am hungry, however, I don't have money for lunch'' = incorrect
*** needs a period or semicolon:
**** ''I am hungry; however, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct
**** ''I am hungry. However, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct
 
==== dependent clause (DC) ====
 
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
* ex. ''The dog plays happily, '''since I gave him a bone'''''
* <u>to test</u>:
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
*** ''Since it is raining.''
**** it contains a finite verb, ("is" with its subject "it"), so it is a clause
**** but "Since it is raining" is not a complete thought or sentence
***** leaves the reader wondering, "since what?"
**** so it is a dependent clause
 
=== types of dependent clauses ===
 
* '''subordinate clause'''
** created by a '''subordinating conjunction'''
*** ''although, as, because, since, until, when, whereas, etc.''
*** note that these are adverbs, so subordinate clauses are also called adverb or adverbial clause
* '''relative clause'''
** created by a '''relative pronoun'''
*** that, which, who
** see also section on restrictive and non-restrictive commas
* "noun clause" is another type of clause that is not imeasured on high school or college assessment tests
** FYI, a noun clause is a clause that acts like a single thing as either subject or object
*** '''''The main thing I like about that professor''' is her attitude.'' << '''noun clause''' (finite verb "is")
 
== Phrase ==
* two or more words that <u>do not contain a finite verb</u>
* important phrases for the high school entrance exam include
** '''attributive noun phrase'''
*** two nouns next to one another, with one noun giving an "attribute" to the other
**** ''dog food, wine glass''
** '''appositive phrase'''
*** "apposotion" = next to, set beside by way of explanation
*** = a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my next door neighbor,''' is friendly''
*** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence
**** ''A '''world expert physician''', Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.'''''
**** ''Dr. Goesa,'''a world expert physician''', performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.'''''
** '''prepositional phrase'''
*** adds information to a noun or verb
**** ''He hit the ball '''out of the park'''''
**** ''Thinking '''about math''' gives me a headache''
 
== Clause parts ==
 
* there are four or five parts of a clause (depending on who you ask)
** subject, verb, object, complement, and adjunct
** here, we will discuss verb as basis of a predicate, which can include objects, complements and adjuncts
 
=== subject ===
 
* the actor or doer of a sentence
* a subject ALWAYS has a finite verb that matches to it
** ''The kid wins''  v. ''The kids won''
*** kid = singular; "wins" = singular verb conjugation
*** kids = plural; "win" = plural verb conjugation
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subject-verb matching: "to win"
!
!Singular
!
!
!Plural
!
|-
|First person
|''I''
|''win''
|
|''We''
|''win''
|-
|Second person
|''You''
|''win''
|
|''You (pural)''
|''win''
|-
|Third person
|''He/ She / It''
|''wins''
|
|''They''
|''win''
|}
 
=== predicate ===
* the verb and its direct modifiers, objects and complements
* '''finite verbs''' form the basis of a predicate
 
=== complement ===
 
* adds additional information to a noun
** can be either to a subject or object
* "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with"
* complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases
 
* ex: ''The dog is '''nice'''''
**"nice" is not the object of the linking verb "is"
**''My friend considers her brother '''crazy'''''
***"crazy" is the object complement to "brother"
**''The book is '''on the table'''''
***"on the table" (prepositional phrase) is the subject complement
 
=== object ===
 
* the recipient of an action
* note that complements are similar, but add information and are not the result of the verb's action
 
==== direct object ====
 
* the direct recipient of the action
** ''She kicked the '''ball''' over the fence''
 
==== indirect object ====
 
* a noun that is the indirect recipient of an action
** ''ex. I gave the '''dog''' a bone''
*** the bone is what "I gave" (result of the action, thus direct object)
*** the dog is the secondary effect or recipient of the verb (indirect object)
 
* to test:
** if the object can be restated with "to" or "for" after the direct object, it is an indirect object:
*** ''The teacher taught the class grammar''
*** ''= The teacher taught grammar to the class''
 
*ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+''School provides students an education''
!subject
!verb
!direct object
!indirect object
|-
|school
|provides
|education
|[for] students
|}
==== note on objects of non-finite verbs ====
 
* non-finite verbs do not have subjects, but they can have objects
** high school admissions tests will not test student comprehension of this concept
* ex. sentence with gerund (non-finite verb as a noun) that has an object:
** note that the finite verb of this sentence is "provides" and its subject is the gerund (non-finite verb as noun) "attending"
{| class="wikitable"
|+''Attending school provides students an education''
!subject
!object of gerund
!verb
!direct object
!indirect object
|-
|Attending
|school
|provides
|education
|[for] students
|-
| colspan="5" |note: "attending" may also be seen as a present participle adjective modifier of the subject "school"
|}
 
== Verbs ==
for other notes, please see Sentence construction and Sentence parts sections above for:
 
* objects
* linking verbs and complements
 
=== finite verb ===
* verb that has a subject
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u>
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements
 
=== non-finite verb ===
 
* verb that does not have a subject
* non-finite verbs include
** '''present participle adjective''': ''That '''boring''' class is tedious''
** '''gerund''' (present participle as a noun): ''Cooking is a good skill to have''
** '''past participle adjective''': ''The comedian left the audience''
**infinitive: can be an adjective, adverb, or noun
***the concept of infinitives will not be measured on the high school entrance exam
 
* non-finite verbs act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns
** they DO NOT directly indicate an action by someone or something
** however, they <u>indicate</u> a sense of an action
=== subject-verb matching (conjugation) ===
 
* finite verbs match the subject case
* "conjugation" means the form of a verb to match the subject, especially pronouns
* test: when considering subject-verb matching, run through conjugation of the pronouns, ''I, you, it, we, they''
** ''I go, you go, it goes, we go, they go''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular v. Plural "to see"
!Singular
!
!
!Plural
!
|-
|''I''
|''see''
|
|''We''
|''see''
|-
|''You''
|''see''
|
|''You (pural)''
|''see''
|-
|''He/ She / It''
|''sees''
|
|''They''
|''see''
|}
 
=== tense ===
* verbs can show past, present and future and various aspects of those
* verbs "inflect" or change according to tense
** or use an "auxiliary" or "helper" verb to indicte tense
*** ''I am, I was, I had been, I will be, etc.''
 
=== maintaining parallel verb tense ===
 
* if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect
** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away''
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
** <u>to test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario
*** ex.
**** ''Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade.''
***** = past tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the past action)
**** ''If I get a good grade, my mom will buy me a new phone.''
***** = present tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the present action)
 
=== participle ===
 
* see also non-finite verb section
 
* participle is the form of a verb that creates the '''''-ing''''' or '''''-ed''''' form of the verb
** present continuous: ''I '''am speaking''' to the clerk.''
** simple past (or preterite): ''We '''discussed''' what we could do about it''
*** note that many verbs, such "to speak," have irregular participles: as in ''I spoke to the clerk''
** present participle adjective: ''The girl '''whispering''' to him was really loud.''
** gerund (present participle noun): '''''Whispering''' loudly isn't actually '''whispering'''''
** past participle adjective: ''The topic '''discussed''' was grammar''
* the participle is also used in the '''perfect tenses'''
 
=== participle phrases ===
 
* students will improve reading comprehension and usage scores by identifying participle or participial phrases
* a phrase does not have a finite-verb
* present or past participles can create adjectives that create "participle phrases"
* participle phrases add information to an IC without having to use another clause
** ex.
*** '''''Having done the research''', he aced the lab test''  << present participle adjective phrase
*** ''I sneezed all day, '''suffering from allergies'''  << present participle adjective phrase''
*** ''The turkey was delicious, '''cooked to perfection'''''.  << past participle adjective phrase
* <u>note</u>: high school entrance exams will not measure this concept directly, but it is helpful for students to recognize
 
=== perfect tenses ===
 
* "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
* <u>note</u>:
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses
 
==== present perfect ====
 
* = the action happened in the past and is still happening and/or is still part of the present (without reference to the future)
 
* uses "'''have'''" and "'''has'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** ''We have gone to France''
*** = we went to France and it is still part of who we are
** ''He has talked about going to France''
*** = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France
* note: the present perfect does not use "'''''of'''''"
** ''She '''should of''' asked for one'' << incorrect
** correct = ''She should have asked for one.''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Present perfect: "have" and "has"
!pronoun
!auxiliary verb
!past participle
!----
!subject
!auxiliary verb
!past participle
|-
| colspan="7" |<u>Regular verb</u>: "wonder"
|-
|''I''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|
|''We''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|-
|''You''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|
|''You (plural)''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|-
|''He / She / It''
|'''''has'''''
|''wondered''
|
|''They''
|''have''
|''wondered''
|}
 
* <u>note</u>: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u>
 
==== past perfect ====
* uses "'''had'''" +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
** "had" is the same for all cases (
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now''
{| class="wikitable"
|+Past Perfect
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|''I had played''
|''We had played''
|-
|''You had played''
|''You (plural) had played''
|-
|''He/ She / It had played''
|''They had played''
|}
 
==== future perfect ====
* uses "'''will have'''" and +  the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
* indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future
** ''By next Tuesday, I '''will have walked''' twelve miles''
 
== Verbs forms to know ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Irregular verbs to know
!verb
!present
!simple past
!present participle
!past participle
!perfect tense
! style="background-color:#b3b3b3" |incorrect
participle
|-
|be
|am/are/is
|was
|being
|been
|have/has been
|style="background-color:#cccccc"| n/a
|-
|begin
|begin
|began
|beginning
|begun
|have/has begun
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began
|-
|break
|break
|broke
|breaking
|broken
|have/has broken
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has broke
|-
|drink
|drink
|drank
|drinking
|drunk  ("drunken" is also used as
past participle adjective
|have/has drunk
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank
|-
|drive
|drive
|drove
|driving
|driven
|have/has driven
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drove
|-
|forget
|forget
|forgot
|forgetting
|forgotten
|have/has forgotten
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has forgot
|-
|go
|go/goes
|went
|going
|gone
|have/has gone
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has went
|-
|grow
|grow/grows
|grew
|growing
|grown
|have/has grown
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew
|-
|hang
|
|hang/hung
|
|
|
|
|-
|lend
|lend
|lent
|lending
|lent
|have/has lent
| style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has lended
|-
|swim
|swim
|swam
|swimming
|swum
|have/has swum
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have//has swam
|-
|write
|write
|wrote
|writing
|written
|have/has written
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has wrote
|}
 
== Verb mixups ==
 
=== lie v. lay: ===
* lie = to put oneself down
** or be in the position of lying down
 
* lay = to put down
** especially regarding an object
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!present
!simple past
!present participle
!past participle
!perfect tense
|-
|lie
|lay or lied
|lying
|lied/ lain
|have/has lied (or lain)
|-
|lay
|laid
|laying
|laid
|have/has laid
|}
 
=== may v. please ===
= modal verbs (express possibility) that change the meaning of another verb
* may = indicates possibility or a request for permission (usually of oneself)
** ''May I have a couple more donuts?''
* please = a polite command or request (usually of someone else_
** ''Please leave me alone!''
* rule:
** may is used to ask for permission
** please is used to make a request
* ex.:
** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct
** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect
 
=== may v. can ===
 
* please = asks for permission, or makes a reques
* can = indicates ability
** if the sentence is a request, use "may" instead of "can"
 
=== teach v. learn ===
 
* teach = to provide learning
* learn = to receive or engage in learning
* ex. ''The student learned from what the teacher taught''
 
== Punctuation ==


=== apostrophe ===
=== apostrophe ===
does 3 things:  
<u>does 3 things</u>:
 
'''1. creates possessive noun'''
 
* rule: only nouns can possess nouns
** however, an adjective may come be between the nouns:
*** ex. ''A guitar's top string is the thickest'' <<"top" = adjective that describes "string"
* test: if the possessive word is followed by a word that is not a noun or an adjective that modifies another noun, it is wrong:
** ex. ''The company's bought the workers new uniforms''  << incorrect
*** the "company" cannot possess the verb "bought"
 
* singular possession. ''Owen's parents are nice''  << singular "Owen"
* plural possession: ''The students' teacher is not so nice''  << plural "students"
** note that some words are plural, so the possessive form will be '''''<nowiki/>'s''''' as opposed to '''''s''''''
*** ''That's the children's playground'' << children = plural, so the apostrophe goes before the '''s'''
** similar words include, men, women,
* note: compound possessives rule:
** if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe
*** ex. ''Maria's and Joey's mother is nice''  << = they both have the same mother
** if the compound possessors both posses something similar but not the exact same thing, both take the possessive
*** ex. Maria's and Joey's mothers are nice << = they both have nice mothers but not the same mother
 
'''2. creates contraction'''
 
* spoken English joins certain words to sound like a single word, which is represented in writing as a contraction
* the high school admissions test will use contractions only when testing homophones
** such as ''they're v. their v. there'', or ''its v. its'''
* contractions are used in standard written English for
** contracting "is" and "are"
*** ''it is > it's, they are >> they're''
 
* contracting auxiliary and modal verbs with "not"
** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't''
 
* contracting "is" on relative pronouns
** ''that's easy, who's going?''
*** = that is easy, who is going
** <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with common nouns
*** ex.  ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
*** or,  ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
 
3. indicate plurality
 
* ex. "1960's",
 
* the high school admissions test will not measure for this use of the apostrophe
 
=== colon ===
<u>does 1 thing</u>:
 
1. sets up an example or explanation, following an independent clause (IC)
 
* rules:
** colons <u>must be preceded</u> by an IC
** <u>can be</u> followed by any grammatical form or punctuation, except another colon
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' cooking, cleaning and straightening things up''
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' they cooked, cleaned, and straightened things up''
** a colon would not follow "such as" since "such as" does the same thing as a colon
*** "such as" would be preceded by a comma if non-restrictive
**** ''I like playing board games, such as chess or checkers''
**** ''Doctors such as Dr. Jones are very caring''
* <u>note</u>: colons are not measured on high school entrance exams
 
=== comma ===
<u>does 6 things</u>:
 
'''1. combines independent clauses (IC) with coordinating conjunction (cc)'''
 
* coordinating conjunction (cc) = FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)
 
* rule: comma + cc to combine IC
* test: if both clauses could be sentence by themselves (each contains a finite verb and makes a complete thought)
 
'''2. combines phrases or dependent DC w/ IC'''
 
* rule: a sentence must contain a finite verb, which forms a clause, so anything added to the clause that does not contain a finite verb is a phrase
* ex.
** <u>dependent clause</u>: '''''Seeing how it's late already''', we'll just skip lunch.''
** <u>phrase</u>: '''''Arriving so late''', we'll have to skip lunch.''
*** "arriving" = a verb, but it does not have a subject, so it is <u>non-finite</u> (it is a present participle adjective)
** phrase: '''''On Tuesdays before noon''', we get to swim at the pool''
 
'''3. creates lists'''
 
* lists must be of the same grammatical form
** i.e., a list is of nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. , and not a mix of them
*** ''Cows, sheep, and are all farm animals.''
* note on "Oxford Comma"
** = the comma between the second-to-last item in a list and the "and" (cc) that combines the last item in the list
*** it is correct to have a comma or not have a comma separating the second-to-last:
**** ''Cows, sheep and are all farm animals.''
**** ''Cows, sheep, and are all farm animals.''
 
'''4. sets up quotation'''
 
* comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."''
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.''
 
'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)'''
 
* ex.
** ''Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.''
** ''Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice''
 
'''6. separate dates and place names'''
 
* month, day, year : ''We took the test on April 11, 2023.''
* month day, year, in the middle of a sentence
** O''n April 11, 2023, we took the test''
* no comma for Month Year: ''We took the test in April 2023.''
 
=== dash ===
<u>does 2 things</u>:
 
1. acts like a colon
 
* rule: if acting like a colon, there will be a single dash preceded by an IC
 
2. acts like parentheses
 
* rule: if acting like parentheses, there will be two dashes
 
<u>does 2 things</u>:  


1. create possessives
'''1. direct quotation'''


Owen's parents
* = the specific words attributed to someone
** ''He said, "I do say."''  


2. create contractions
* see rules for commas above when using quotation marks


Can't, won't, it's
'''2. indicate sarcasm or other reference'''


it's v its
* ''She is my "best friend"... not.''


they're v their
* will note be measured on high school or college entrance exams


3. (less commonly) indicate plurality > ex. "1960's"
=== parentheses ===
<u>does 1 thing</u>:


=== proper noun capitalization ===
* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts:
** ex. 
*** ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing''
*** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence
*** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly:
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing''
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing''
 
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses


=== quotation marks ===
=== quotation marks ===
do 3 things:  
*indicate a direct statement by a particular speaker
*a comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction:
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."''
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.''
 
* rules:
** uses quotation marks around the quoted words
** first word of the quotation is capitalized
*** He said, "I say."
** if the quotation ends a sentence, it will be followed by a period (often but not always inside the quotation mark)
** the name of the speaker may also follow the quotation
*** ''"A hammer can fix anything," he said, wryly.''
** if a question, will have a question mark
*** ''The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"''
** if the speaker name is after a quoted question, the question mark replaces the comma:
*** ''"Why are you so funny?" the clown asked.''
** exclamation points also replace the comma in a quotation
* <u>note</u>: if the quoted portion is a fragment of a larger written quotation, the first word is not capitalized
** but that will not be measured on high school admissions tests
 
=== semicolon ===
<u>does 2 things</u>:


1. quotations
'''1. combines independent clauses'''


2. indicate sarcasm
* test:
** replace the semicoln with a period and see if both sides could stand as a sentence by themselves . If not, it is wrong.
** if the semicolon separates (or combines) two distinct subject-verb combinations AND each could be a sentence by itself, then the semicolon is correct


=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
'''2. acts as a "super comma"'''
in compound objects, remove the first noun and test the pronoun
 
* a super comma is a list of examples separated by semicolons
** ex.  ''We're heading to Europe this summer: Florence, Italy; Valencia, Spain; and Munich, Germany.''
 
*<u>note</u>: this use will not appear on high school entrance exam, but it may appear on a college entrance exam
 
== Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses ==
 
* restrictive elements are not separated by commas
* commas separate non-restrictive elements
** non-restrictive = not essential to the meaning of the sentence
 
=== subordinate clause ===
= a form of a dependent clause
 
* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>:
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.''
** ''Although I was tired, I took the test.''
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.''
** note that the "subordinating conjunction" is also called a "dependent marker" or "dependent word"
 
=== when, because ===
= are subordinating conjunctions (among many others)
 
* can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
** ''The car ran out of gas '''because I forgot to fill it'''''
** ''I ran out of gas''', because I'm always forgetting.'''''
** '''''When you leave,''' don't forget to turn out the lights.''
** ''Don't forget to turn out the lights '''when you leave.'''''


> Steve and I went to the park.
=== relative clause ===
= a form of a dependent clause


> Steve and me went to the park
= clause that follows a relative pronoun, ''that, where, which, who, whose''


me went to the park = wrong
* relative clauses can be either <u>restrictive</u> or <u>non-restrictive</u>
** '''''that'' <u>is always restrictiv</u>e''' (no comma)
*** ''The cat '''that got stuck on the roof''' was hers''
*** ''Five things '''that you need''' to learn are...''
** '''''which''''' can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
** if "which" can be replaced by "that" it is restrictive (no comma)
*** The cat which got stuck on the roof was hers
** but "which" can also be non-restrictive
*** if it cannot be replaced by "that" it is non-restrictive
*** ex. ''The cat''', which is hers,''' got stuck on the roof.''  << correct
*** ex. ''The cat''', that is hers,''' got stuck on the roof.''  << incorrect, so use "which" and commas
** when '''''which''''' follows an independent clause it is usually non-restrictive
*** ''Roads across deserts are straight for miles''', which makes you sleepy'''''
*** Five beavers live under the dam''''', which they made from my favorite tree.'''''
** '''''who, whose''''' can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
*** ''The guy '''who always wins''' just won again.''
*** ''That kid, '''who should know better''', did it again''
* note that the relative pronoun can be either a "dependent word" that serves as a conjunction
** ''He turned out the lights, '''which he usually forgets to to.'''''
*** which = relative pronoun and dependent word that combines the two clauses
* or as the subject of the relative clause
** ''Don't forget to turn off the lights, '''which saves energy'''''
*** which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy")


> She gave Joey and me a bad grade.
== Noun ==


> She gave Joey and I a bad grade
=== proper noun capitalization ===


remove "joey"
* proper noun = capitalized names for people, places, titles, organizations, etc.
* formal titles are capitalized
** the high school admissions test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another
*** ex.:
**** ''Dr. tom Jones is a famous physician'' << incorrect
**** ''University of missouri'' << incorrect
** note that "the" is not capitalized for proper names
*** ''the Navy'' (correct) v. ''The Navy'' (incorrect)
*** ''the Nationals'' (correct) v. ''The Commanders'' (incorrect)
* generic or general professions or titles <u>are NOT</u> capitalized:
** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect
* seasons are NOT capitalized
** We go to Maine in the summer


she gave I a bad grade = wrong
=== attributive noun ===


=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===
* = nouns that modify another noun
>  prepositions create a prep phrase
** but are not adjectives
* '''''dog''' food, '''wine''' class, '''government''' class, '''class''' government''


> prep prhase contains a
* these nouns modify the 2nd noun
* called "attributive" because they convey an "attribute" to the second noun


> preoposition + an object
* the attributive noun is singular (almost always)
** bc it's acting like an adjective (which doesn't change plurality)
*** i.e., ''red shoes'' instead of ''reds shoes'' (incorrect)
**** so ''dog food'' instead of ''dogs food'' (incorrect)


Between you and I, grammar sucks.  x b/c I = subjective
* the attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies
** ''big dog bone'' instead of ''dog big bone'' (incorrect)


Between you and me, grammar sucks.
== Pronoun ==


The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.
=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Subjective
!Example
!Objective
!Example
|-
|I
|''You and I won''
|me
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|you
|''You and I won''
|you
|''They beat you and me''
|-
|he / she/ it
|''He and you won''
|him / her/ it
|''They beat you and her''
|-
|we
|''We beat them''
|us
|''They beat us''
|-
|they
|''They beat us''
|them
|''We beat them''
|}
To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects:


The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.
* remove the first noun and test the pronoun
** ''Steve and I went to the park.''versus
** ''Steve and me went to the park''
** <u>remove</u> "Steve"
*** ''Me went to the park'' = incorrec
** ''She gave Joey and me a bad grade.''
** ''She gave Joey and I a bad grade''
** <u>remove</u> "Joey"
*** ''She gave I a bad grade'' = incorrect


=== attributive nouns ===
* <u>common wrong pronoun answers include:</u>
nouns that act like adjectives (but are not adjectives)
** Us kids are going  << should be "We kids are going"
*** <u>to test</u>:  remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect
**** thus, "We are going" works


dog food
=== personal pronouns and prepositions ===


wine glass
* prepositions create a prep phrase


class government
* prepositional phrases consist of
** preposition + object (noun or noun phrase)


dog, wine, class = nouns, but they are modifying the 2nd noun .. giving them an "attribute"
* prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns
** ''Between you and I, grammar sucks''. versus:
** ''Between you and me, grammar sucks.''
***
** <u>remove</u> "you" and replace "between" with "for"
*** can also be read, ''For you and me, grammar sucks''
*** ''For I, grammar sucks'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''For me, grammar sucks'' << correct (objectives case)
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.''
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.''
*** remove "the dog"
*** ''The car stopped right in front of he.'' << incorrect (subjective case)
*** ''The car stopped right in front of him.'' << correct (objective case


the attributive noun is ALWAYS SINGULAR .. bc it's acting like an adjective (which don't change pluraity)
=== indefinite pronouns ===


> dog food not dogs food
* refer to a person, thing, amount, etc. in general (''any, none, some'') or to all of something (''all, both, each'')


attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies
* indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on wether they refer to one or many/all of something
* the high school admissions test may include subject-verb mismatch when using indefinite pronouns


big dog bone.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="4" |third person singular conjugation = ''"s"'' as in ''it goes, it is, it seems''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!as pronoun
!with preposition
!as determiner
|-
|anyone / anything
|''anything will do''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''each''
|''each goes well''
|''each of them goes well''
|''each dress is pretty''
|-
|''either''
|''either works''
|''either of them works''
|''either choice will do''
|-
|''every / everyone / everything''
|''everyone wants some''
|''everyone of them wants some''
|''every child loves candy''
|-
|''much''
|''much is missing''
|''much of that is gone''
|''much fun was had''
|-
|''neither''
|''neither agrees''
|''neither of them agrees''
|''neither witness agrees''
|-
|''no one''
|''no one feels''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''nothing''
|''nothing is good''
|''n/a''
|''n/a''
|-
|''one / someone''
|''one wants''
|''one of them wants''
|''one boy wants''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Plural Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="4" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!pronoun example
!with preposition
!as determiner
|-
|all
|all are fine
|all of them are fine
|all choices work
|-
|both
|''both are fine''
|both of them are fine
|both choices work
|-
|few
|''few go there''
|few of them go
|few people go
|-
|many
|''many are the brave''
|many of them are
|many people are
|-
|others
|''others know enough''
|
|
|-
|several
|several are bringing lunch
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns
! colspan="3" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")''
|-
!indefinite pronoun
!singular
!plural
|-
|all
|''all is well here''
|all are well
|-
|any
|''any of them is fine''
|any of them are okay
|-
|most
|the most works
|most work
|-
|none
|''none goes well''
|none go well
|-
|some
|some is enough
|some are not enough
|-
|
|
|
|}


dog big bone  x
* '''''each, every, few, some,''''' etc. can be either a determiner (modifier) or pronoun
** as determiners, these words modify a noun:
*** ''every person thinks so, few people think so''
*** some bees sting, all vehicles
** as pronouns, they are the subject of a sentence


<nowiki>-------</nowiki>
== Adjective ==


=== cumulative v. coordinate adjectives ===
=== cumulative v. coordinate adjectives ===
cumulative adjectives = no comma


the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun
* cumulative adjectives = no comma separating them
* the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun
** ex.  ''stupid smart people''
*** = "smart people" who are stupid
*** ''expensive small gift''
**** = expensive "small gift"
** ''small expensive gift''
*** = small "expensive gift"
* coordinate adjectives = have a comma separating them
** ex. big, red balloon
*** = the balloon is both big and red balloon
*** ''red, big balloon = big, red balloon = big & red ballon''
** test: if the adjectives are coordinate, then
*** you can add a coordinating conjunction, such as "and" in between them
*** you can switch them
**** and it means the same thing
 
== Adverb ==


expensive small gift
* adverb modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb
* in the high school entrance exam, the adverb may be measured by <u>confusion with an adjective</u>
* ex.
** ''She ran home quick'' << incorrect, as "quick" modifies the verb "ran" so it needs to be the adverb, "quickly"
** ''She ran home quickly'' << correct
** ''He yelled angry at the man'' << incorrect as "angry" is an adjective, which modifies a noun
** ''He yelled angrily'' << correct
*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is"


= expensive [small gift]
* adverbs that do not use the '''''-ly'''''


small expensive gift
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!adverb
!adjective
|-
|better
|better
|-
|fast
|fast
|-
|hard
|hard
|-
|late
|late
|}


= small [expensive gift]
== prepositions ==


coordinate adjectives
* prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally
** prepositional phrase = <u>preposition</u> + <u>object of the preposition</u>
* prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the <u>object of the preposition</u>
** that relationship depends on the preposition
** i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence
** prepositions include:
*** '''''about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon'''''


= uses a comma
{| class="wikitable"
!Subject-Verb
!preposition
!object
!incorrect preposition
|-
|
| colspan="2" | -- prepositional phrase --
|
|-
|''We sat''
|'''''in'''''
|''the grandstand''
|''We sat '''for''' the grandstand''
|-
|''Every afternoon we go''
|'''''to'''''
|''the bakery''
|''Every afternoon we go '''on''' the bakery''
|-
|''The shady spot is''
|'''''under'''''
|''the tree''
|''The shady spot is '''over''' the tree''
|-
|''Stop reading''
|'''''at'''''
|''the chapter's end''
|''Stop reading '''for''' the chapter's end''
|}


big, red balloon
== homophones ==
* words that sound the same (or about the same) but spell and mean differently


if you can swtich them, or put "and" in between them, it uses a comma (coordinate)
* high school assessment tests will commonly use:
* '''''accept, except'''''
** accept = verb, to welcome or admit
*** ''The school '''accepted''' me!''
** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but"
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.''
* '''''I have, I'd'''''
* '''''its, it's'''''
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun
** ''it's'' = contraction of "it is"
* '''''there, they're, their'''''
** ''there'' = indicates specificity or location
** ''they're'' = contraction of "they are"
** ''their'' = plural possessive pronoun
* '''''then, than'''''
** ''then'' = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then")
** ''than'' = makes a comparison
* '''''to, too, two'''''
** ''to'' = preposition (or particle) indicating a direction or purpose
** ''too'' = also
*** ''two'' = 2
* '''''wear, we're, were, where'''''
** ''wear'' = to have clothes on
** ''we're'' = contraction of "we are"
** ''were'' = plural simple past tense of "to be"
** ''where'' = indicates location or situation
* '''''who's, whose'''''
** ''who's'' = contraction for "who is"
** ''whose'' = possessive form of the pronoun "who"
* '''''you're, your'''''
** you're = contraction for "you are"
** your = possessive form of "you"
* others may include:
** '''''capital, capitol'''''
*** ''capital'' = the offical or main city or place of a state or country
**** can also mean: "money," "head of"
*** ''capitol'' = the building in which the government resides or operates
** '''''site, cite, sight'''''
** '''''fare, fair'''''
** '''''peace, piece'''''
* note: compare to ''homonyms'', which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently
** ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree
** high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept


=
== Redundancy ==


big and red balloon = ok
* in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas
* '''''again, also, back'''''
** ''The clerk refunded '''back''' the money''  << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant
** ''In addition, we '''also''' saw the zebras.''  << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant


red, big balloon = ok
* <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as:
** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.''  << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant


=== may v. please ===
== Misc concepts, skills & words ==
 
=== double negative ===


* Please pass the salt = ok
* look for negative words that create a "double" or redundant negative
* usually the first nagative will be hiddent in a contraction
** ''didn't, couldn't, won't,'' etc.
* ex.
** ''She coudn't find it no where'' <<incorrect double negative
** ''Janie didn't see nobody'' << incorrect double negative


* May you pass the sale = x
=== either/or vs. neither/nor ===


* please = asking permission
* when '''either''' & '''neither''' are conjunctions, they require a matching counterpart


* may = instruction/command
* thus we have
** ''either ... or''
*** = positive, or affirming
*** ''I'd be glad to have either this or that.''
** ''neither ... nor'' 
*** = negative or negating
*** ''We saw neither fish nor fowl.''
* note: either and neither have other grammatical functions (adverb, pronoun), but the high school placement test will not specifically measure those uses
** just know that ''either'' goes with ''or'' and ''neither'' goes with ''nor''


=== lie v. lay: ===
**


* lie = to put oneself down
=== many v. much ===


* lay = to put an object down
* '''many''' is for nouns that can be counted
** ''He's owns many shoes.''
* '''much''' is used for nouns that cannot be counted (non-count nouns)
** ''There is much work to do.''
** Noncount nouns include
*** ''art, electricity, happiness, money, music, rice, water, etc.''
*** note that these non-count nouns are singular ("art is...")


* past tense
=== nothing v. any ===


* lie >> lay
* '''''nothing''''' indicates an absence of something
* '''''any''''' indicates a lack of or generality of something
** ''are there any people here?'' < asks if anyone is possibly there?
** ''nothing is going on'' << indicates an absolute absence


* participle lain/lied/lying
=== questions ===


* lay > laid
* a narrator may ask a question that seems like a spoken quotation, but it may not need quotation marks
** ex.''What are we doing next?''
*** as opposed to
*** ''"What are we doing next?" Steve asked''
**** note that the question mark replaces the comma
* tests may present a question that contains an error in "has" or "had" for a question
** turn the question into a statement and see if the subect-verb match is correct
** ex
*** ''Have you seen my friends?''
**** = You have seen my friends 
*** ''How long has they been working on it?''
**** ''They has been working on it'' << <u>incorrect</u> (needs the plural auxiliary verb "have")


* participle: laid/laying
=== quotation marks not needed ===


=== irregular past participles ===
* a thought or narrated statement does not need quotation marks
go
** quotation marks separate words distinctly stated by someone other than the narrator or author
** so the narrator or author can say something or say something someone else said without quotation marks
** ex.
*** ''Mr. Jackson told us to sit down.''
*** ''If you're hungry, let me know.''
* commands with a stated name do not need quotation marks:
** ''Jerry, leave your paper right there.''


* simple past (preterite) = went
* when a relative clause is employed following "stated" or "said," the quotation mark is not needed:
** ex.  ''She said the test was super easy''
*** = ''She said [that] the test was super easy''
**** so quotation marks are not necessary


participle : gone
=== "that there" error ===


perfect tenses use the participle!
* ''That there dog is mean''  << incorrect because "that" and "there" are used incorrectly as adverbs to modify noun


past perfect : have/has gone
* it could be written:
** ''That dog there is mean''
*** "there" is now an adverb modifying the verb "is"
*** and "that" is a determiner (indicates a specific dog, as in "that one")


present perfect: had gone
* or, if "that" is used as a relative pronoun:
** ''What he means to say is '''that''' there are too many to choose from.'' < "that" = relative pronoun, and "there" is an adverb


future perfect: will have gone
[[Category:Language Arts]]
[[Category:Grammar]]

Latest revision as of 02:03, 9 June 2024

General notes about high school admissions tests grammar/ usage sections

  • given 4 possible answers, if you see that an answer is clearly wrong, then you know that the other possible answers are correct
  • therefore, you can use the 3 correct answers as examples of correct usage/grammar on other questions

Sentence[edit | edit source]

sentence[edit | edit source]

  • = a grammatically complete thought
    • contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject)
    • makes a complete thought
      • The dog plays.
        • as opposed to Since the dog plays << not a complete thought
  • a sentence can be a combination of clauses and phrases
    • but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb)
    • note: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed)
      • ex.:Go home! = [you] Go home!
      • this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test
  • see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs

Clause[edit | edit source]

  • part of a sentence that contains a finite verb
  • if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an independent clause (IC)
  • if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a dependent clause (DC)

independent clause (IC)[edit | edit source]

  • a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself
  • an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence
    • ex. The dog plays happily, since I gave him a bone
      • "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC
      • "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC
      • by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence.

coordinating conjunction[edit | edit source]

  • = FANBOYS
  • "coordinates" like sentence parts
  • combines
    • ICs, nouns and nouns, verbs and verbs, DCs and DCs, etc.
      • it always joins "coordinate" or like sentence parts
  • note that transition words are NOT coordinating conjunctions
    • as ,however, nevertheless, etc. ARE NOT coordinating conunctions
    • they are conjunctive adverbs
      • which means that they set up a contrast or comparison of verbs / predicates
    • RULE: however is NOT coordinating conjunction
    • so do not use it to combines ICs
      • I am hungry, however, I don't have money for lunch = incorrect
      • needs a period or semicolon:
        • I am hungry; however, I don't have money for lunch = correct
        • I am hungry. However, I don't have money for lunch = correct

dependent clause (DC)[edit | edit source]

  • a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself
  • ex. The dog plays happily, since I gave him a bone
  • to test:
    • if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause
      • Since it is raining.
        • it contains a finite verb, ("is" with its subject "it"), so it is a clause
        • but "Since it is raining" is not a complete thought or sentence
          • leaves the reader wondering, "since what?"
        • so it is a dependent clause

types of dependent clauses[edit | edit source]

  • subordinate clause
    • created by a subordinating conjunction
      • although, as, because, since, until, when, whereas, etc.
      • note that these are adverbs, so subordinate clauses are also called adverb or adverbial clause
  • relative clause
    • created by a relative pronoun
      • that, which, who
    • see also section on restrictive and non-restrictive commas
  • "noun clause" is another type of clause that is not imeasured on high school or college assessment tests
    • FYI, a noun clause is a clause that acts like a single thing as either subject or object
      • The main thing I like about that professor is her attitude. << noun clause (finite verb "is")

Phrase[edit | edit source]

  • two or more words that do not contain a finite verb
  • important phrases for the high school entrance exam include
    • attributive noun phrase
      • two nouns next to one another, with one noun giving an "attribute" to the other
        • dog food, wine glass
    • appositive phrase
      • "apposotion" = next to, set beside by way of explanation
      • = a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence
        • ex. Steve, my next door neighbor, is friendly
      • note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence
        • A world expert physician, Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, a groundbreaking operation.
        • Dr. Goesa,a world expert physician, performed a postocalaptia, a groundbreaking operation.
    • prepositional phrase
      • adds information to a noun or verb
        • He hit the ball out of the park
        • Thinking about math gives me a headache

Clause parts[edit | edit source]

  • there are four or five parts of a clause (depending on who you ask)
    • subject, verb, object, complement, and adjunct
    • here, we will discuss verb as basis of a predicate, which can include objects, complements and adjuncts

subject[edit | edit source]

  • the actor or doer of a sentence
  • a subject ALWAYS has a finite verb that matches to it
    • The kid wins v. The kids won
      • kid = singular; "wins" = singular verb conjugation
      • kids = plural; "win" = plural verb conjugation
Subject-verb matching: "to win"
Singular Plural
First person I win We win
Second person You win You (pural) win
Third person He/ She / It wins They win

predicate[edit | edit source]

  • the verb and its direct modifiers, objects and complements
  • finite verbs form the basis of a predicate

complement[edit | edit source]

  • adds additional information to a noun
    • can be either to a subject or object
  • "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with"
  • complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases
  • ex: The dog is nice
    • "nice" is not the object of the linking verb "is"
    • My friend considers her brother crazy
      • "crazy" is the object complement to "brother"
    • The book is on the table
      • "on the table" (prepositional phrase) is the subject complement

object[edit | edit source]

  • the recipient of an action
  • note that complements are similar, but add information and are not the result of the verb's action

direct object[edit | edit source]

  • the direct recipient of the action
    • She kicked the ball over the fence

indirect object[edit | edit source]

  • a noun that is the indirect recipient of an action
    • ex. I gave the dog a bone
      • the bone is what "I gave" (result of the action, thus direct object)
      • the dog is the secondary effect or recipient of the verb (indirect object)
  • to test:
    • if the object can be restated with "to" or "for" after the direct object, it is an indirect object:
      • The teacher taught the class grammar
      • = The teacher taught grammar to the class
  • ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects
School provides students an education
subject verb direct object indirect object
school provides education [for] students

note on objects of non-finite verbs[edit | edit source]

  • non-finite verbs do not have subjects, but they can have objects
    • high school admissions tests will not test student comprehension of this concept
  • ex. sentence with gerund (non-finite verb as a noun) that has an object:
    • note that the finite verb of this sentence is "provides" and its subject is the gerund (non-finite verb as noun) "attending"
Attending school provides students an education
subject object of gerund verb direct object indirect object
Attending school provides education [for] students
note: "attending" may also be seen as a present participle adjective modifier of the subject "school"

Verbs[edit | edit source]

for other notes, please see Sentence construction and Sentence parts sections above for:

  • objects
  • linking verbs and complements

finite verb[edit | edit source]

  • verb that has a subject
  • finite verbs form the predicate
    • predicate = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements

non-finite verb[edit | edit source]

  • verb that does not have a subject
  • non-finite verbs include
    • present participle adjective: That boring class is tedious
    • gerund (present participle as a noun): Cooking is a good skill to have
    • past participle adjective: The comedian left the audience
    • infinitive: can be an adjective, adverb, or noun
      • the concept of infinitives will not be measured on the high school entrance exam
  • non-finite verbs act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns
    • they DO NOT directly indicate an action by someone or something
    • however, they indicate a sense of an action

subject-verb matching (conjugation)[edit | edit source]

  • finite verbs match the subject case
  • "conjugation" means the form of a verb to match the subject, especially pronouns
  • test: when considering subject-verb matching, run through conjugation of the pronouns, I, you, it, we, they
    • I go, you go, it goes, we go, they go
Singular v. Plural "to see"
Singular Plural
I see We see
You see You (pural) see
He/ She / It sees They see

tense[edit | edit source]

  • verbs can show past, present and future and various aspects of those
  • verbs "inflect" or change according to tense
    • or use an "auxiliary" or "helper" verb to indicte tense
      • I am, I was, I had been, I will be, etc.

maintaining parallel verb tense[edit | edit source]

  • if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect
    • ex. The bird flew around the house, then it flies away
      • = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense
    • to test: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence
  • note: a sentence may contain a different tenses
    • usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario
      • ex.
        • Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade.
          • = past tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the past action)
        • If I get a good grade, my mom will buy me a new phone.
          • = present tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the present action)

participle[edit | edit source]

  • see also non-finite verb section
  • participle is the form of a verb that creates the -ing or -ed form of the verb
    • present continuous: I am speaking to the clerk.
    • simple past (or preterite): We discussed what we could do about it
      • note that many verbs, such "to speak," have irregular participles: as in I spoke to the clerk
    • present participle adjective: The girl whispering to him was really loud.
    • gerund (present participle noun): Whispering loudly isn't actually whispering
    • past participle adjective: The topic discussed was grammar
  • the participle is also used in the perfect tenses

participle phrases[edit | edit source]

  • students will improve reading comprehension and usage scores by identifying participle or participial phrases
  • a phrase does not have a finite-verb
  • present or past participles can create adjectives that create "participle phrases"
  • participle phrases add information to an IC without having to use another clause
    • ex.
      • Having done the research, he aced the lab test << present participle adjective phrase
      • I sneezed all day, suffering from allergies << present participle adjective phrase
      • The turkey was delicious, cooked to perfection. << past participle adjective phrase
  • note: high school entrance exams will not measure this concept directly, but it is helpful for students to recognize

perfect tenses[edit | edit source]

  • "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete)
  • note:
    • high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses

present perfect[edit | edit source]

  • = the action happened in the past and is still happening and/or is still part of the present (without reference to the future)
  • uses "have" and "has" + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
    • We have gone to France
      • = we went to France and it is still part of who we are
    • He has talked about going to France
      • = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France
  • note: the present perfect does not use "of"
    • She should of asked for one << incorrect
    • correct = She should have asked for one.
Present perfect: "have" and "has"
pronoun auxiliary verb past participle ---- subject auxiliary verb past participle
Regular verb: "wonder"
I have wondered We have wondered
You have wondered You (plural) have wondered
He / She / It has wondered They have wondered
  • note: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still present tense

past perfect[edit | edit source]

  • uses "had" + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
    • "had" is the same for all cases (
  • indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past
    • I had played piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now
Past Perfect
Singular Plural
I had played We had played
You had played You (plural) had played
He/ She / It had played They had played

future perfect[edit | edit source]

  • uses "will have" and + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb
  • indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future
    • By next Tuesday, I will have walked twelve miles

Verbs forms to know[edit | edit source]

Irregular verbs to know
verb present simple past present participle past participle perfect tense incorrect

participle

be am/are/is was being been have/has been n/a
begin begin began beginning begun have/has begun have/has began
break break broke breaking broken have/has broken have/has broke
drink drink drank drinking drunk ("drunken" is also used as

past participle adjective

have/has drunk have/has drank
drive drive drove driving driven have/has driven have/has drove
forget forget forgot forgetting forgotten have/has forgotten have/has forgot
go go/goes went going gone have/has gone have/has went
grow grow/grows grew growing grown have/has grown have/has grew
hang hang/hung
lend lend lent lending lent have/has lent have/has lended
swim swim swam swimming swum have/has swum have//has swam
write write wrote writing written have/has written have/has wrote

Verb mixups[edit | edit source]

lie v. lay:[edit | edit source]

  • lie = to put oneself down
    • or be in the position of lying down
  • lay = to put down
    • especially regarding an object
present simple past present participle past participle perfect tense
lie lay or lied lying lied/ lain have/has lied (or lain)
lay laid laying laid have/has laid

may v. please[edit | edit source]

= modal verbs (express possibility) that change the meaning of another verb

  • may = indicates possibility or a request for permission (usually of oneself)
    • May I have a couple more donuts?
  • please = a polite command or request (usually of someone else_
    • Please leave me alone!
  • rule:
    • may is used to ask for permission
    • please is used to make a request
  • ex.:
    • Please pass the salt = correct
    • May you pass the sale = incorrect

may v. can[edit | edit source]

  • please = asks for permission, or makes a reques
  • can = indicates ability
    • if the sentence is a request, use "may" instead of "can"

teach v. learn[edit | edit source]

  • teach = to provide learning
  • learn = to receive or engage in learning
  • ex. The student learned from what the teacher taught

Punctuation[edit | edit source]

apostrophe[edit | edit source]

does 3 things:

1. creates possessive noun

  • rule: only nouns can possess nouns
    • however, an adjective may come be between the nouns:
      • ex. A guitar's top string is the thickest <<"top" = adjective that describes "string"
  • test: if the possessive word is followed by a word that is not a noun or an adjective that modifies another noun, it is wrong:
    • ex. The company's bought the workers new uniforms << incorrect
      • the "company" cannot possess the verb "bought"
  • singular possession. Owen's parents are nice << singular "Owen"
  • plural possession: The students' teacher is not so nice << plural "students"
    • note that some words are plural, so the possessive form will be 's as opposed to s'
      • That's the children's playground << children = plural, so the apostrophe goes before the s
    • similar words include, men, women,
  • note: compound possessives rule:
    • if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe
      • ex. Maria's and Joey's mother is nice << = they both have the same mother
    • if the compound possessors both posses something similar but not the exact same thing, both take the possessive
      • ex. Maria's and Joey's mothers are nice << = they both have nice mothers but not the same mother

2. creates contraction

  • spoken English joins certain words to sound like a single word, which is represented in writing as a contraction
  • the high school admissions test will use contractions only when testing homophones
    • such as they're v. their v. there, or its v. its'
  • contractions are used in standard written English for
    • contracting "is" and "are"
      • it is > it's, they are >> they're
  • contracting auxiliary and modal verbs with "not"
    • would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't
  • contracting "is" on relative pronouns
    • that's easy, who's going?
      • = that is easy, who is going
    • note: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with common nouns
      • ex. That elephant's big (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken
      • or, Those elephants'r big (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken

3. indicate plurality

  • ex. "1960's",
  • the high school admissions test will not measure for this use of the apostrophe

colon[edit | edit source]

does 1 thing:

1. sets up an example or explanation, following an independent clause (IC)

  • rules:
    • colons must be preceded by an IC
    • can be followed by any grammatical form or punctuation, except another colon
      • Given so little time they did what they could: cooking, cleaning and straightening things up
      • Given so little time they did what they could: they cooked, cleaned, and straightened things up
    • a colon would not follow "such as" since "such as" does the same thing as a colon
      • "such as" would be preceded by a comma if non-restrictive
        • I like playing board games, such as chess or checkers
        • Doctors such as Dr. Jones are very caring
  • note: colons are not measured on high school entrance exams

comma[edit | edit source]

does 6 things:

1. combines independent clauses (IC) with coordinating conjunction (cc)

  • coordinating conjunction (cc) = FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)
  • rule: comma + cc to combine IC
  • test: if both clauses could be sentence by themselves (each contains a finite verb and makes a complete thought)

2. combines phrases or dependent DC w/ IC

  • rule: a sentence must contain a finite verb, which forms a clause, so anything added to the clause that does not contain a finite verb is a phrase
  • ex.
    • dependent clause: Seeing how it's late already, we'll just skip lunch.
    • phrase: Arriving so late, we'll have to skip lunch.
      • "arriving" = a verb, but it does not have a subject, so it is non-finite (it is a present participle adjective)
    • phrase: On Tuesdays before noon, we get to swim at the pool

3. creates lists

  • lists must be of the same grammatical form
    • i.e., a list is of nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. , and not a mix of them
      • Cows, sheep, and are all farm animals.
  • note on "Oxford Comma"
    • = the comma between the second-to-last item in a list and the "and" (cc) that combines the last item in the list
      • it is correct to have a comma or not have a comma separating the second-to-last:
        • Cows, sheep and are all farm animals.
        • Cows, sheep, and are all farm animals.

4. sets up quotation

  • comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction
    • The clown said, "I feel funny."
    • "I feel funny," said the clown.

5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)

  • ex.
    • Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.
    • Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice

6. separate dates and place names

  • month, day, year : We took the test on April 11, 2023.
  • month day, year, in the middle of a sentence
    • On April 11, 2023, we took the test
  • no comma for Month Year: We took the test in April 2023.

dash[edit | edit source]

does 2 things:

1. acts like a colon

  • rule: if acting like a colon, there will be a single dash preceded by an IC

2. acts like parentheses

  • rule: if acting like parentheses, there will be two dashes

does 2 things:

1. direct quotation

  • = the specific words attributed to someone
    • He said, "I do say."
  • see rules for commas above when using quotation marks

2. indicate sarcasm or other reference

  • She is my "best friend"... not.
  • will note be measured on high school or college entrance exams

parentheses[edit | edit source]

does 1 thing:

  • sets aside information outside of the grammatical flow of a sentence
    • i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts:
    • ex.
      • Birds (avian creatures) are amazing
      • normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence
      • note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly:
        • Birds, avian creatures,are amazing
        • Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing
  • pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses

quotation marks[edit | edit source]

  • indicate a direct statement by a particular speaker
  • a comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction:
    • The clown said, "I feel funny."
    • "I feel funny," said the clown.
  • rules:
    • uses quotation marks around the quoted words
    • first word of the quotation is capitalized
      • He said, "I say."
    • if the quotation ends a sentence, it will be followed by a period (often but not always inside the quotation mark)
    • the name of the speaker may also follow the quotation
      • "A hammer can fix anything," he said, wryly.
    • if a question, will have a question mark
      • The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"
    • if the speaker name is after a quoted question, the question mark replaces the comma:
      • "Why are you so funny?" the clown asked.
    • exclamation points also replace the comma in a quotation
  • note: if the quoted portion is a fragment of a larger written quotation, the first word is not capitalized
    • but that will not be measured on high school admissions tests

semicolon[edit | edit source]

does 2 things:

1. combines independent clauses

  • test:
    • replace the semicoln with a period and see if both sides could stand as a sentence by themselves . If not, it is wrong.
    • if the semicolon separates (or combines) two distinct subject-verb combinations AND each could be a sentence by itself, then the semicolon is correct

2. acts as a "super comma"

  • a super comma is a list of examples separated by semicolons
    • ex. We're heading to Europe this summer: Florence, Italy; Valencia, Spain; and Munich, Germany.
  • note: this use will not appear on high school entrance exam, but it may appear on a college entrance exam

Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses[edit | edit source]

  • restrictive elements are not separated by commas
  • commas separate non-restrictive elements
    • non-restrictive = not essential to the meaning of the sentence

subordinate clause[edit | edit source]

= a form of a dependent clause

  • subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally non-restrictive:
    • I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.
    • Although I was tired, I took the test.
  • subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause)
    • although, because, since, while, etc.
    • note that the "subordinating conjunction" is also called a "dependent marker" or "dependent word"

when, because[edit | edit source]

= are subordinating conjunctions (among many others)

  • can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
    • The car ran out of gas because I forgot to fill it
    • I ran out of gas, because I'm always forgetting.
    • When you leave, don't forget to turn out the lights.
    • Don't forget to turn out the lights when you leave.

relative clause[edit | edit source]

= a form of a dependent clause

= clause that follows a relative pronoun, that, where, which, who, whose

  • relative clauses can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
    • that is always restrictive (no comma)
      • The cat that got stuck on the roof was hers
      • Five things that you need to learn are...
    • which can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
    • if "which" can be replaced by "that" it is restrictive (no comma)
      • The cat which got stuck on the roof was hers
    • but "which" can also be non-restrictive
      • if it cannot be replaced by "that" it is non-restrictive
      • ex. The cat, which is hers, got stuck on the roof. << correct
      • ex. The cat, that is hers, got stuck on the roof. << incorrect, so use "which" and commas
    • when which follows an independent clause it is usually non-restrictive
      • Roads across deserts are straight for miles, which makes you sleepy
      • Five beavers live under the dam, which they made from my favorite tree.
    • who, whose can be either restrictive or non-restrictive
      • The guy who always wins just won again.
      • That kid, who should know better, did it again
  • note that the relative pronoun can be either a "dependent word" that serves as a conjunction
    • He turned out the lights, which he usually forgets to to.
      • which = relative pronoun and dependent word that combines the two clauses
  • or as the subject of the relative clause
    • Don't forget to turn off the lights, which saves energy
      • which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy")

Noun[edit | edit source]

proper noun capitalization[edit | edit source]

  • proper noun = capitalized names for people, places, titles, organizations, etc.
  • formal titles are capitalized
    • the high school admissions test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another
      • ex.:
        • Dr. tom Jones is a famous physician << incorrect
        • University of missouri << incorrect
    • note that "the" is not capitalized for proper names
      • the Navy (correct) v. The Navy (incorrect)
      • the Nationals (correct) v. The Commanders (incorrect)
  • generic or general professions or titles are NOT capitalized:
    • My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer << incorrect
    • Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles << incorrect
  • seasons are NOT capitalized
    • We go to Maine in the summer

attributive noun[edit | edit source]

  • = nouns that modify another noun
    • but are not adjectives
  • dog food, wine class, government class, class government
  • these nouns modify the 2nd noun
  • called "attributive" because they convey an "attribute" to the second noun
  • the attributive noun is singular (almost always)
    • bc it's acting like an adjective (which doesn't change plurality)
      • i.e., red shoes instead of reds shoes (incorrect)
        • so dog food instead of dogs food (incorrect)
  • the attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies
    • big dog bone instead of dog big bone (incorrect)

Pronoun[edit | edit source]

personal pronoun subjective & objective case[edit | edit source]

Subjective Example Objective Example
I You and I won me They beat you and me
you You and I won you They beat you and me
he / she/ it He and you won him / her/ it They beat you and her
we We beat them us They beat us
they They beat us them We beat them

To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects:

  • remove the first noun and test the pronoun
    • Steve and I went to the park.versus
    • Steve and me went to the park
    • remove "Steve"
      • Me went to the park = incorrec
    • She gave Joey and me a bad grade.
    • She gave Joey and I a bad grade
    • remove "Joey"
      • She gave I a bad grade = incorrect
  • common wrong pronoun answers include:
    • Us kids are going << should be "We kids are going"
      • to test: remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect
        • thus, "We are going" works

personal pronouns and prepositions[edit | edit source]

  • prepositions create a prep phrase
  • prepositional phrases consist of
    • preposition + object (noun or noun phrase)
  • prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns
    • Between you and I, grammar sucks. versus:
    • Between you and me, grammar sucks.
    • remove "you" and replace "between" with "for"
      • can also be read, For you and me, grammar sucks
      • For I, grammar sucks << incorrect (subjective case)
      • For me, grammar sucks << correct (objectives case)
    • The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.
    • The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.
      • remove "the dog"
      • The car stopped right in front of he. << incorrect (subjective case)
      • The car stopped right in front of him. << correct (objective case

indefinite pronouns[edit | edit source]

  • refer to a person, thing, amount, etc. in general (any, none, some) or to all of something (all, both, each)
  • indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on wether they refer to one or many/all of something
  • the high school admissions test may include subject-verb mismatch when using indefinite pronouns
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
third person singular conjugation = "s" as in it goes, it is, it seems
indefinite pronoun as pronoun with preposition as determiner
anyone / anything anything will do n/a n/a
each each goes well each of them goes well each dress is pretty
either either works either of them works either choice will do
every / everyone / everything everyone wants some everyone of them wants some every child loves candy
much much is missing much of that is gone much fun was had
neither neither agrees neither of them agrees neither witness agrees
no one no one feels n/a n/a
nothing nothing is good n/a n/a
one / someone one wants one of them wants one boy wants
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
third person plural conjugation = they are, they go, they believe (no "s")
indefinite pronoun pronoun example with preposition as determiner
all all are fine all of them are fine all choices work
both both are fine both of them are fine both choices work
few few go there few of them go few people go
many many are the brave many of them are many people are
others others know enough
several several are bringing lunch
Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns
third person plural conjugation = they are, they go, they believe (no "s")
indefinite pronoun singular plural
all all is well here all are well
any any of them is fine any of them are okay
most the most works most work
none none goes well none go well
some some is enough some are not enough
  • each, every, few, some, etc. can be either a determiner (modifier) or pronoun
    • as determiners, these words modify a noun:
      • every person thinks so, few people think so
      • some bees sting, all vehicles
    • as pronouns, they are the subject of a sentence

Adjective[edit | edit source]

cumulative v. coordinate adjectives[edit | edit source]

  • cumulative adjectives = no comma separating them
  • the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun
    • ex. stupid smart people
      • = "smart people" who are stupid
      • expensive small gift
        • = expensive "small gift"
    • small expensive gift
      • = small "expensive gift"
  • coordinate adjectives = have a comma separating them
    • ex. big, red balloon
      • = the balloon is both big and red balloon
      • red, big balloon = big, red balloon = big & red ballon
    • test: if the adjectives are coordinate, then
      • you can add a coordinating conjunction, such as "and" in between them
      • you can switch them
        • and it means the same thing

Adverb[edit | edit source]

  • adverb modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb
  • in the high school entrance exam, the adverb may be measured by confusion with an adjective
  • ex.
    • She ran home quick << incorrect, as "quick" modifies the verb "ran" so it needs to be the adverb, "quickly"
    • She ran home quickly << correct
    • He yelled angry at the man << incorrect as "angry" is an adjective, which modifies a noun
    • He yelled angrily << correct
      • or He is angry << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is"
  • adverbs that do not use the -ly
adverb adjective
better better
fast fast
hard hard
late late

prepositions[edit | edit source]

  • prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally
    • prepositional phrase = preposition + object of the preposition
  • prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the object of the preposition
    • that relationship depends on the preposition
    • i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence
    • prepositions include:
      • about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon
Subject-Verb preposition object incorrect preposition
-- prepositional phrase --
We sat in the grandstand We sat for the grandstand
Every afternoon we go to the bakery Every afternoon we go on the bakery
The shady spot is under the tree The shady spot is over the tree
Stop reading at the chapter's end Stop reading for the chapter's end

homophones[edit | edit source]

  • words that sound the same (or about the same) but spell and mean differently
  • high school assessment tests will commonly use:
  • accept, except
    • accept = verb, to welcome or admit
      • The school accepted me!
    • except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but"
      • Every school except one accepted me.
  • I have, I'd
  • its, it's
    • its = singular possessive pronoun
    • it's = contraction of "it is"
  • there, they're, their
    • there = indicates specificity or location
    • they're = contraction of "they are"
    • their = plural possessive pronoun
  • then, than
    • then = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then")
    • than = makes a comparison
  • to, too, two
    • to = preposition (or particle) indicating a direction or purpose
    • too = also
      • two = 2
  • wear, we're, were, where
    • wear = to have clothes on
    • we're = contraction of "we are"
    • were = plural simple past tense of "to be"
    • where = indicates location or situation
  • who's, whose
    • who's = contraction for "who is"
    • whose = possessive form of the pronoun "who"
  • you're, your
    • you're = contraction for "you are"
    • your = possessive form of "you"
  • others may include:
    • capital, capitol
      • capital = the offical or main city or place of a state or country
        • can also mean: "money," "head of"
      • capitol = the building in which the government resides or operates
    • site, cite, sight
    • fare, fair
    • peace, piece
  • note: compare to homonyms, which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently
    • ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree
    • high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept

Redundancy[edit | edit source]

  • in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary repetition (redundancy) of words or ideas
  • again, also, back
    • The clerk refunded back the money << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant
    • In addition, we also saw the zebras. << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant
  • note: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as:
    • Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs. << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant

Misc concepts, skills & words[edit | edit source]

double negative[edit | edit source]

  • look for negative words that create a "double" or redundant negative
  • usually the first nagative will be hiddent in a contraction
    • didn't, couldn't, won't, etc.
  • ex.
    • She coudn't find it no where <<incorrect double negative
    • Janie didn't see nobody << incorrect double negative

either/or vs. neither/nor[edit | edit source]

  • when either & neither are conjunctions, they require a matching counterpart
  • thus we have
    • either ... or
      • = positive, or affirming
      • I'd be glad to have either this or that.
    • neither ... nor
      • = negative or negating
      • We saw neither fish nor fowl.
  • note: either and neither have other grammatical functions (adverb, pronoun), but the high school placement test will not specifically measure those uses
    • just know that either goes with or and neither goes with nor

many v. much[edit | edit source]

  • many is for nouns that can be counted
    • He's owns many shoes.
  • much is used for nouns that cannot be counted (non-count nouns)
    • There is much work to do.
    • Noncount nouns include
      • art, electricity, happiness, money, music, rice, water, etc.
      • note that these non-count nouns are singular ("art is...")

nothing v. any[edit | edit source]

  • nothing indicates an absence of something
  • any indicates a lack of or generality of something
    • are there any people here? < asks if anyone is possibly there?
    • nothing is going on << indicates an absolute absence

questions[edit | edit source]

  • a narrator may ask a question that seems like a spoken quotation, but it may not need quotation marks
    • ex.What are we doing next?
      • as opposed to
      • "What are we doing next?" Steve asked
        • note that the question mark replaces the comma
  • tests may present a question that contains an error in "has" or "had" for a question
    • turn the question into a statement and see if the subect-verb match is correct
    • ex
      • Have you seen my friends?
        • = You have seen my friends
      • How long has they been working on it?
        • They has been working on it << incorrect (needs the plural auxiliary verb "have")

quotation marks not needed[edit | edit source]

  • a thought or narrated statement does not need quotation marks
    • quotation marks separate words distinctly stated by someone other than the narrator or author
    • so the narrator or author can say something or say something someone else said without quotation marks
    • ex.
      • Mr. Jackson told us to sit down.
      • If you're hungry, let me know.
  • commands with a stated name do not need quotation marks:
    • Jerry, leave your paper right there.
  • when a relative clause is employed following "stated" or "said," the quotation mark is not needed:
    • ex. She said the test was super easy
      • = She said [that] the test was super easy
        • so quotation marks are not necessary

"that there" error[edit | edit source]

  • That there dog is mean << incorrect because "that" and "there" are used incorrectly as adverbs to modify noun
  • it could be written:
    • That dog there is mean
      • "there" is now an adverb modifying the verb "is"
      • and "that" is a determiner (indicates a specific dog, as in "that one")
  • or, if "that" is used as a relative pronoun:
    • What he means to say is that there are too many to choose from. < "that" = relative pronoun, and "there" is an adverb