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General notes about high school admissions tests grammar/ usage sections | |||
* given 4 possible answers, if you see that an answer is clearly wrong, then you know that the other possible answers are correct | |||
* therefore, you can use the 3 correct answers as examples of correct usage/grammar on other questions | |||
== Sentence == | == Sentence == | ||
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* = a grammatically complete thought | * = a grammatically complete thought | ||
** contains a finite verb | ** contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject) | ||
** makes a complete thought | ** makes a complete thought | ||
*** ''The dog | *** ''The dog plays.'' | ||
**** as opposed to ''Since | **** as opposed to ''Since the dog plays <<'' not a complete thought | ||
* a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases''' | * a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases''' | ||
** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb | ** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb) | ||
** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed) | ** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed) | ||
*** ex.:''Go home!'' = ''[you] Go home!'' | *** ex.:''Go home!'' = ''[you] Go home!'' | ||
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test | *** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test | ||
* see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs | |||
== Clause == | == Clause == | ||
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb''' | * part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb''' | ||
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause''' | * if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause (IC)''' | ||
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause''' | * if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause (DC)''' | ||
=== independent clause (IC) === | === independent clause (IC) === | ||
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself | * a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself | ||
* an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence | * an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence | ||
** ex. '''''The dog | ** ex. '''''The dog plays happily''', since I gave him a bone'' | ||
*** "The dog | *** "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC | ||
*** "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC | |||
*** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence. | *** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence. | ||
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* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself | * a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself | ||
* ex. ''The dog | * ex. ''The dog plays happily, '''since I gave him a bone''''' | ||
* <u>test</u>: | * <u>to test</u>: | ||
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause | ** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause | ||
*** ''Since it is raining.'' | *** ''Since it is raining.'' | ||
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**** ''dog food, wine glass'' | **** ''dog food, wine glass'' | ||
** '''appositive phrase''' | ** '''appositive phrase''' | ||
*** a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence | *** "apposotion" = next to, set beside by way of explanation | ||
*** = a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence | |||
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my next door neighbor,''' is friendly'' | **** ex. ''Steve, '''my next door neighbor,''' is friendly'' | ||
*** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence | *** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence | ||
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* verb that has a subject | * verb that has a subject | ||
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> | * finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> | ||
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers | ** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements | ||
=== non-finite verb === | === non-finite verb === | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|''I'' | |''I'' | ||
|see | |''see'' | ||
| | | | ||
|''We'' | |''We'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|''He/ She / It'' | |''He/ She / It'' | ||
|sees | |''sees'' | ||
| | | | ||
|''They'' | |''They'' | ||
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** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away'' | ** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away'' | ||
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense | *** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense | ||
** <u>test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence | ** <u>to test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence | ||
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses | * <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses | ||
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario | ** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario | ||
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=== perfect tenses === | === perfect tenses === | ||
* "perfect" tense means that the action | * "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete) | ||
* <u>note</u>: | * <u>note</u>: | ||
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses | ** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Present perfect: "have" and " | |+Present perfect: "have" and "has" | ||
!pronoun | !pronoun | ||
!auxiliary verb | !auxiliary verb | ||
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|''have'' | |''have'' | ||
|''wondered'' | |''wondered'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
* note | * <u>note</u>: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u> | ||
==== past perfect ==== | ==== past perfect ==== | ||
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* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past | * indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past | ||
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now'' | ** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now'' | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Past Perfect | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
|- | |||
|''I had played'' | |||
|''We had played'' | |||
|- | |||
|''You had played'' | |||
|''You (plural) had played'' | |||
|- | |||
|''He/ She / It had played'' | |||
|''They had played'' | |||
|} | |||
==== future perfect ==== | ==== future perfect ==== | ||
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|beginning | |beginning | ||
|begun | |begun | ||
|have/ | |have/has begun | ||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began | |style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|drank | |drank | ||
|drinking | |drinking | ||
|drunk | |drunk ("drunken" is also used as | ||
("drunken" is also used | past participle adjective | ||
|have/has drunk | |have/has drunk | ||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank | |style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank | ||
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|have/has gone | |have/has gone | ||
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has went | |style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has went | ||
|- | |||
|grow | |||
|grow/grows | |||
|grew | |||
|growing | |||
|grown | |||
|have/has grown | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew | |||
|- | |||
|hang | |||
| | |||
|hang/hung | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|lend | |lend | ||
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|lent | |lent | ||
|have/has lent | |have/has lent | ||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has lended | | style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has lended | ||
|- | |- | ||
|swim | |swim | ||
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** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct | ** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct | ||
** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect | ** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect | ||
=== may v. can === | |||
* please = asks for permission, or makes a reques | |||
* can = indicates ability | |||
** if the sentence is a request, use "may" instead of "can" | |||
=== teach v. learn === | === teach v. learn === | ||
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* teach = to provide learning | * teach = to provide learning | ||
* learn = to receive or engage in learning | * learn = to receive or engage in learning | ||
* ex. | * ex. ''The student learned from what the teacher taught'' | ||
== Punctuation == | == Punctuation == | ||
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** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't'' | ** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't'' | ||
* | * contracting "is" on relative pronouns | ||
** ''that's easy, who's going?'' | |||
* <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with | *** = that is easy, who is going | ||
** ex. ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | ** <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with common nouns | ||
** or, ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | *** ex. ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | ||
*** or, ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | |||
3. indicate plurality | 3. indicate plurality | ||
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'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)''' | '''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)''' | ||
ex. | * ex. | ||
** ''Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.'' | |||
** ''Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice'' | |||
'''6. separate dates and place names''' | '''6. separate dates and place names''' | ||
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* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence | * sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence | ||
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts: | ** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts: | ||
** ex. | |||
*** ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing'' | |||
*** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence | |||
*** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly: | |||
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing'' | **** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing'' | ||
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing'' | **** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing'' | ||
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses | * pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses | ||
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* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>: | * subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>: | ||
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.'' | ** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.'' | ||
** ''Although I was tired,I took the test.'' | ** ''Although I was tired, I took the test.'' | ||
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) | * subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) | ||
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.'' | ** ''although, because, since, while, etc.'' | ||
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** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect | ** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect | ||
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect | ** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect | ||
* seasons are NOT capitalized | |||
** We go to Maine in the summer | |||
=== attributive noun === | === attributive noun === | ||
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=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case === | === personal pronoun subjective & objective case === | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!Subjective | |||
!Example | |||
!Objective | |||
!Example | |||
|- | |||
|I | |||
|''You and I won'' | |||
|me | |||
|''They beat you and me'' | |||
|- | |||
|you | |||
|''You and I won'' | |||
|you | |||
|''They beat you and me'' | |||
|- | |||
|he / she/ it | |||
|''He and you won'' | |||
|him / her/ it | |||
|''They beat you and her'' | |||
|- | |||
|we | |||
|''We beat them'' | |||
|us | |||
|''They beat us'' | |||
|- | |||
|they | |||
|''They beat us'' | |||
|them | |||
|''We beat them'' | |||
|} | |||
To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects: | |||
* remove the first noun and test the pronoun | |||
** ''Steve and I went to the park.''versus | |||
** ''Steve and me went to the park'' | |||
** <u>remove</u> "Steve" | |||
*** ''Me went to the park'' = incorrec | |||
** ''She gave Joey and me a bad grade.'' | |||
** ''She gave Joey and I a bad grade'' | |||
** <u>remove</u> "Joey" | |||
*** ''She gave I a bad grade'' = incorrect | |||
> | * <u>common wrong pronoun answers include:</u> | ||
** Us kids are going << should be "We kids are going" | |||
*** <u>to test</u>: remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect | |||
**** thus, "We are going" works | |||
=== personal pronouns and prepositions === | |||
* prepositions create a prep phrase | |||
* prepositional phrases consist of | |||
** preposition + object (noun or noun phrase) | |||
remove " | * prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns | ||
** ''Between you and I, grammar sucks''. versus: | |||
** ''Between you and me, grammar sucks.'' | |||
*** | |||
** <u>remove</u> "you" and replace "between" with "for" | |||
*** can also be read, ''For you and me, grammar sucks'' | |||
*** ''For I, grammar sucks'' << incorrect (subjective case) | |||
*** ''For me, grammar sucks'' << correct (objectives case) | |||
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.'' | |||
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.'' | |||
*** remove "the dog" | |||
*** ''The car stopped right in front of he.'' << incorrect (subjective case) | |||
*** ''The car stopped right in front of him.'' << correct (objective case | |||
=== indefinite pronouns === | |||
* refer to a person, thing, amount, etc. in general (''any, none, some'') or to all of something (''all, both, each'') | |||
* indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on wether they refer to one or many/all of something | |||
* the high school admissions test may include subject-verb mismatch when using indefinite pronouns | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Singular Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="4" |third person singular conjugation = ''"s"'' as in ''it goes, it is, it seems'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!as pronoun | |||
!with preposition | |||
!as determiner | |||
|- | |||
|anyone / anything | |||
|''anything will do'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''each'' | |||
|''each goes well'' | |||
|''each of them goes well'' | |||
|''each dress is pretty'' | |||
|- | |||
|''either'' | |||
|''either works'' | |||
|''either of them works'' | |||
|''either choice will do'' | |||
|- | |||
|''every / everyone / everything'' | |||
|''everyone wants some'' | |||
|''everyone of them wants some'' | |||
|''every child loves candy'' | |||
|- | |||
|''much'' | |||
|''much is missing'' | |||
|''much of that is gone'' | |||
|''much fun was had'' | |||
|- | |||
|''neither'' | |||
|''neither agrees'' | |||
|''neither of them agrees'' | |||
|''neither witness agrees'' | |||
|- | |||
|''no one'' | |||
|''no one feels'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''nothing'' | |||
|''nothing is good'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''one / someone'' | |||
|''one wants'' | |||
|''one of them wants'' | |||
|''one boy wants'' | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Plural Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="4" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!pronoun example | |||
!with preposition | |||
!as determiner | |||
|- | |||
|all | |||
|all are fine | |||
|all of them are fine | |||
|all choices work | |||
|- | |||
|both | |||
|''both are fine'' | |||
|both of them are fine | |||
|both choices work | |||
|- | |||
|few | |||
|''few go there'' | |||
|few of them go | |||
|few people go | |||
|- | |||
|many | |||
|''many are the brave'' | |||
|many of them are | |||
|many people are | |||
|- | |||
|others | |||
|''others know enough'' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|several | |||
|several are bringing lunch | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="3" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!singular | |||
!plural | |||
|- | |||
|all | |||
|''all is well here'' | |||
|all are well | |||
|- | |||
|any | |||
|''any of them is fine'' | |||
|any of them are okay | |||
|- | |||
|most | |||
|the most works | |||
|most work | |||
|- | |||
|none | |||
|''none goes well'' | |||
|none go well | |||
|- | |||
|some | |||
|some is enough | |||
|some are not enough | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
* '''''each, every, few, some,''''' etc. can be either a determiner (modifier) or pronoun | |||
** as determiners, these words modify a noun: | |||
*** ''every person thinks so, few people think so'' | |||
*** some bees sting, all vehicles | |||
** as pronouns, they are the subject of a sentence | |||
== Adjective == | == Adjective == | ||
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** ''He yelled angrily'' << correct | ** ''He yelled angrily'' << correct | ||
*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is" | *** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is" | ||
* adverbs that do not use the '''''-ly''''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!adverb | |||
!adjective | |||
|- | |||
|better | |||
|better | |||
|- | |||
|fast | |||
|fast | |||
|- | |||
|hard | |||
|hard | |||
|- | |||
|late | |||
|late | |||
|} | |||
== prepositions == | |||
* prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally | |||
** prepositional phrase = <u>preposition</u> + <u>object of the preposition</u> | |||
* prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the <u>object of the preposition</u> | |||
** that relationship depends on the preposition | |||
** i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence | |||
** prepositions include: | |||
*** '''''about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon''''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
!Subject-Verb | |||
!preposition | |||
!object | |||
!incorrect preposition | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| colspan="2" | -- prepositional phrase -- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|''We sat'' | |||
|'''''in''''' | |||
|''the grandstand'' | |||
|''We sat '''for''' the grandstand'' | |||
|- | |||
|''Every afternoon we go'' | |||
|'''''to''''' | |||
|''the bakery'' | |||
|''Every afternoon we go '''on''' the bakery'' | |||
|- | |||
|''The shady spot is'' | |||
|'''''under''''' | |||
|''the tree'' | |||
|''The shady spot is '''over''' the tree'' | |||
|- | |||
|''Stop reading'' | |||
|'''''at''''' | |||
|''the chapter's end'' | |||
|''Stop reading '''for''' the chapter's end'' | |||
|} | |||
== homophones == | |||
* words that sound the same (or about the same) but spell and mean differently | |||
* high school assessment tests will commonly use: | |||
* '''''accept, except''''' | |||
** accept = verb, to welcome or admit | |||
*** ''The school '''accepted''' me!'' | |||
** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but" | |||
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.'' | |||
* '''''I have, I'd''''' | |||
* '''''its, it's''''' | |||
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun | |||
** ''it's'' = contraction of "it is" | |||
* '''''there, they're, their''''' | |||
** ''there'' = indicates specificity or location | |||
** ''they're'' = contraction of "they are" | |||
** ''their'' = plural possessive pronoun | |||
* '''''then, than''''' | |||
** ''then'' = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then") | |||
** ''than'' = makes a comparison | |||
* '''''to, too, two''''' | |||
** ''to'' = preposition (or particle) indicating a direction or purpose | |||
** ''too'' = also | |||
*** ''two'' = 2 | |||
* '''''wear, we're, were, where''''' | |||
** ''wear'' = to have clothes on | |||
** ''we're'' = contraction of "we are" | |||
** ''were'' = plural simple past tense of "to be" | |||
** ''where'' = indicates location or situation | |||
* '''''who's, whose''''' | |||
** ''who's'' = contraction for "who is" | |||
** ''whose'' = possessive form of the pronoun "who" | |||
* '''''you're, your''''' | |||
** you're = contraction for "you are" | |||
** your = possessive form of "you" | |||
* others may include: | |||
** '''''capital, capitol''''' | |||
*** ''capital'' = the offical or main city or place of a state or country | |||
**** can also mean: "money," "head of" | |||
*** ''capitol'' = the building in which the government resides or operates | |||
** '''''site, cite, sight''''' | |||
** '''''fare, fair''''' | |||
** '''''peace, piece''''' | |||
* note: compare to ''homonyms'', which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently | |||
** ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree | |||
** high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept | |||
== Redundancy == | == Redundancy == | ||
* in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas | * in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas | ||
* | * '''''again, also, back''''' | ||
** ''The clerk refunded back the money'' << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant | ** ''The clerk refunded '''back''' the money'' << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant | ||
** <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will | ** ''In addition, we '''also''' saw the zebras.'' << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant | ||
* <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as: | |||
** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.'' << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant | |||
== Misc concepts, skills & words == | == Misc concepts, skills & words == | ||
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** just know that ''either'' goes with ''or'' and ''neither'' goes with ''nor'' | ** just know that ''either'' goes with ''or'' and ''neither'' goes with ''nor'' | ||
** | |||
* | |||
* | |||
=== many v. much === | === many v. much === |