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== Sentence | General notes about high school admissions tests grammar/ usage sections | ||
* given 4 possible answers, if you see that an answer is clearly wrong, then you know that the other possible answers are correct | |||
* therefore, you can use the 3 correct answers as examples of correct usage/grammar on other questions | |||
== Sentence == | |||
=== sentence === | === sentence === | ||
* = a grammatically complete thought | * = a grammatically complete thought | ||
** contains a finite verb | ** contains a finite verb (= a verb that has a subject) | ||
** makes a complete thought | ** makes a complete thought | ||
*** ''The dog | *** ''The dog plays.'' | ||
**** as opposed to ''Since | **** as opposed to ''Since the dog plays <<'' not a complete thought | ||
* note: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed) | * a sentence can be a combination of '''clauses''' and '''phrases''' | ||
** ex.:''Go home!'' = ''[you] Go home!'' | ** but every sentence has at its basis a subject and verb (finite verb) | ||
** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test | ** <u>note</u>: commands or "imperative" verbs are finite verbs, even if the subject is unstated (it is assumed) | ||
*** ex.:''Go home!'' = ''[you] Go home!'' | |||
*** this concept will note be on a high school admissions test, but it may be on a college admissions test | |||
* see Verb section for more on finite and non-finite verbs | |||
* | == Clause == | ||
* part of a sentence that contains a '''finite verb''' | |||
* if the clause could be a sentence by itself, it is an '''independent clause (IC)''' | |||
* if the clause cannot be a sentence by itself, it is a '''dependent clause (DC)''' | |||
* | === independent clause (IC) === | ||
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb and can be a sentence by itself | |||
* | * an independent clause that is by itself is a sentence | ||
** ''' | ** ex. '''''The dog plays happily''', since I gave him a bone'' | ||
** | *** "The dog plays happily" could be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is an IC | ||
*** "since I gave him a bone" would not be a complete sentence if by itself, so it is a DC | |||
*** | *** by adding the dependent clause, "since I gave him a bone," we create a larger sentence. | ||
* | |||
** | |||
=== | ==== coordinating conjunction ==== | ||
* | * = FANBOYS | ||
* | * "coordinates" like sentence parts | ||
* | * combines | ||
** ICs, nouns and nouns, verbs and verbs, DCs and DCs, etc. | |||
*** it always joins "coordinate" or like sentence parts | |||
* note that transition words are NOT coordinating conjunctions | |||
** ''as ,however, nevertheless, etc.'' ARE NOT coordinating conunctions | |||
** they are conjunctive adverbs | |||
*** which means that they set up a contrast or comparison of verbs / predicates | |||
** RULE: however is NOT coordinating conjunction | |||
** so do not use it to combines ICs | |||
*** ''I am hungry, however, I don't have money for lunch'' = incorrect | |||
*** needs a period or semicolon: | |||
**** ''I am hungry; however, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct | |||
**** ''I am hungry. However, I don't have money for lunch'' = correct | |||
==== | ==== dependent clause (DC) ==== | ||
* a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb | * a part of a sentence that contains a finite verb but cannot be a sentence by itself | ||
* ex. | * ex. ''The dog plays happily, '''since I gave him a bone''''' | ||
* <u>to test</u>: | |||
** if the clause by itself leaves a question or remains an inconmplete thought, it is a dependent clause | |||
*** ''Since it is raining.'' | |||
**** it contains a finite verb, ("is" with its subject "it"), so it is a clause | |||
**** but "Since it is raining" is not a complete thought or sentence | |||
***** leaves the reader wondering, "since what?" | |||
**** so it is a dependent clause | |||
=== | === types of dependent clauses === | ||
* '''subordinate clause''' | |||
** created by a '''subordinating conjunction''' | |||
*** ''although, as, because, since, until, when, whereas, etc.'' | |||
*** note that these are adverbs, so subordinate clauses are also called adverb or adverbial clause | |||
* '''relative clause''' | |||
** created by a '''relative pronoun''' | |||
*** that, which, who | |||
** see also section on restrictive and non-restrictive commas | |||
* "noun clause" is another type of clause that is not imeasured on high school or college assessment tests | |||
** FYI, a noun clause is a clause that acts like a single thing as either subject or object | |||
*** '''''The main thing I like about that professor''' is her attitude.'' << '''noun clause''' (finite verb "is") | |||
== Phrase == | |||
* two or more words that <u>do not contain a finite verb</u> | * two or more words that <u>do not contain a finite verb</u> | ||
* important phrases for the high school entrance exam include | * important phrases for the high school entrance exam include | ||
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**** ''dog food, wine glass'' | **** ''dog food, wine glass'' | ||
** '''appositive phrase''' | ** '''appositive phrase''' | ||
*** a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence | *** "apposotion" = next to, set beside by way of explanation | ||
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my | *** = a parenthetical phrase to add information to another word or part of a sentence | ||
**** ex. ''Steve, '''my next door neighbor,''' is friendly'' | |||
*** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence | *** note that appositive phrases can come at the beginning or end of a sentence | ||
**** ''A '''world expert physician''', Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.''''' | **** ''A '''world expert physician''', Dr. Goesa performed a postocalaptia, '''a groundbreaking operation.''''' | ||
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**** ''Thinking '''about math''' gives me a headache'' | **** ''Thinking '''about math''' gives me a headache'' | ||
== | == Clause parts == | ||
* there are four or five parts of a clause (depending on who you ask) | |||
** subject, verb, object, complement, and adjunct | |||
* | ** here, we will discuss verb as basis of a predicate, which can include objects, complements and adjuncts | ||
* | |||
=== subject === | === subject === | ||
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|''win'' | |''win'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== predicate === | |||
* the verb and its direct modifiers, objects and complements | |||
* '''finite verbs''' form the basis of a predicate | |||
=== complement === | === complement === | ||
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* "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with" | * "complement" means to "go along with," "coordinate with" | ||
* complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases | * complements can be adjectives, adverbs or nouns, as well as phrases | ||
* ex: | |||
* ex: ''The dog is '''nice''''' | |||
**"nice" is not the object of the linking verb "is" | |||
**''My friend considers her brother '''crazy''''' | **''My friend considers her brother '''crazy''''' | ||
***"crazy" is the object complement to "brother" | |||
**''The book is '''on the table''''' | |||
***"on the table" (prepositional phrase) is the subject complement | |||
=== object === | === object === | ||
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*** ''= The teacher taught grammar to the class'' | *** ''= The teacher taught grammar to the class'' | ||
*ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects | *ex: sentence with direct and indirect objects | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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== Verbs == | == Verbs == | ||
=== | for other notes, please see Sentence construction and Sentence parts sections above for: | ||
* objects | |||
* linking verbs and complements | |||
=== finite verb === | |||
* verb that has a subject | |||
* finite verbs form the <u>predicate</u> | |||
** '''predicate''' = the verb and its direct modifiers, objects & complements | |||
==== verb | === non-finite verb === | ||
* verb that does not have a subject | |||
* non-finite verbs include | |||
** '''present participle adjective''': ''That '''boring''' class is tedious'' | |||
** '''gerund''' (present participle as a noun): ''Cooking is a good skill to have'' | |||
** '''past participle adjective''': ''The comedian left the audience'' | |||
**infinitive: can be an adjective, adverb, or noun | |||
***the concept of infinitives will not be measured on the high school entrance exam | |||
* non-finite verbs act as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns | |||
** they DO NOT directly indicate an action by someone or something | |||
** however, they <u>indicate</u> a sense of an action | |||
=== subject-verb matching (conjugation) === | |||
* finite verbs match the subject case | * finite verbs match the subject case | ||
* test: when considering subject-verb matching | * "conjugation" means the form of a verb to match the subject, especially pronouns | ||
* test: when considering subject-verb matching, run through conjugation of the pronouns, ''I, you, it, we, they'' | |||
** ''I go, you go, it goes, we go, they go'' | |||
= | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Singular v. Plural "to see" | |||
!Singular | |||
! | |||
! | |||
!Plural | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
|''I'' | |||
|''see'' | |||
| | |||
|''We'' | |||
|''see'' | |||
|- | |||
|''You'' | |||
|''see'' | |||
| | |||
|''You (pural)'' | |||
|''see'' | |||
|- | |||
|''He/ She / It'' | |||
|''sees'' | |||
| | |||
|''They'' | |||
|''see'' | |||
|} | |||
* | === tense === | ||
* verbs can show past, present and future and various aspects of those | |||
* verbs "inflect" or change according to tense | |||
** or use an "auxiliary" or "helper" verb to indicte tense | |||
*** ''I am, I was, I had been, I will be, etc.'' | |||
=== | === maintaining parallel verb tense === | ||
* if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect | * if a sentence contains two tenses, it is likely incorrect | ||
** ex. | ** ex. ''The bird flew around the house, then it flies away'' | ||
*** = incorrect because it the tense shifts from past "flew" to present "flies" in the same sentence, which does not make sense | |||
** <u>to test</u>: match the finite verb tense to another finite verb in the sentence or in a nearby sentence | |||
* <u>note</u>: a sentence may contain a different tenses | |||
** usually it will be in the subjunctive form, which means suggesting a possibility or "if this then that" scenario | |||
*** ex. | |||
**** ''Since I studied hard, I will get a good grade.'' | |||
***** = past tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the past action) | |||
**** ''If I get a good grade, my mom will buy me a new phone.'' | |||
***** = present tense + future tense (the future is conditional/depends on the present action) | |||
=== | === participle === | ||
* see also non-finite verb section | |||
* participle is the form of a verb that creates the '''''-ing''''' or '''''-ed''''' form of the verb | |||
** present continuous: ''I '''am speaking''' to the clerk.'' | |||
** simple past (or preterite): ''We '''discussed''' what we could do about it'' | |||
*** note that many verbs, such "to speak," have irregular participles: as in ''I spoke to the clerk'' | |||
** present participle adjective: ''The girl '''whispering''' to him was really loud.'' | |||
** gerund (present participle noun): '''''Whispering''' loudly isn't actually '''whispering''''' | |||
** past participle adjective: ''The topic '''discussed''' was grammar'' | |||
* the participle is also used in the '''perfect tenses''' | |||
=== participle phrases === | |||
* students will improve reading comprehension and usage scores by identifying participle or participial phrases | |||
* a phrase does not have a finite-verb | |||
* present or past participles can create adjectives that create "participle phrases" | |||
* participle phrases add information to an IC without having to use another clause | |||
** ex. | |||
*** '''''Having done the research''', he aced the lab test'' << present participle adjective phrase | |||
*** ''I sneezed all day, '''suffering from allergies''' << present participle adjective phrase'' | |||
*** ''The turkey was delicious, '''cooked to perfection'''''. << past participle adjective phrase | |||
* <u>note</u>: high school entrance exams will not measure this concept directly, but it is helpful for students to recognize | |||
=== perfect tenses === | |||
* "perfect" tense means that the action has a specific duration (i.e., it is complete) | |||
* <u>note</u>: | |||
** high school and college admissions tests may require identifying correct subject-verb match in the perfect tenses | |||
==== present perfect ==== | |||
* = the action happened in the past and is still happening and/or is still part of the present (without reference to the future) | |||
* uses "'''have'''" and "'''has'''" + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb | |||
** ''We have gone to France'' | |||
*** = we went to France and it is still part of who we are | |||
** ''He has talked about going to France'' | |||
*** = he did in the past and is still talking about going to France | |||
* note: the present perfect does not use "'''''of'''''" | |||
** ''She '''should of''' asked for one'' << incorrect | |||
** correct = ''She should have asked for one.'' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Present perfect: "have" and "has" | |||
!pronoun | |||
!auxiliary verb | |||
!past participle | |||
!---- | |||
!subject | |||
!auxiliary verb | |||
!past participle | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="7" |<u>Regular verb</u>: "wonder" | |||
|- | |||
|''I'' | |||
|''have'' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
| | |||
|''We'' | |||
|''have'' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
|- | |||
|''You'' | |||
|''have'' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
| | |||
|''You (plural)'' | |||
|''have'' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
|- | |||
|''He / She / It'' | |||
|'''''has''''' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
| | |||
|''They'' | |||
|''have'' | |||
|''wondered'' | |||
|} | |||
* | * <u>note</u>: the present perfect uses the past tense auxiliary verb (have/has), but the tense is still <u>present tense</u> | ||
* past | ==== past perfect ==== | ||
* uses "'''had'''" + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb | |||
** "had" is the same for all cases ( | |||
* indicates an action that was ongoing in the past and stopped happening in the past | |||
** ''I '''had played''' piano in the past, but I couldn't touch it now'' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Past Perfect | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
|- | |||
|''I had played'' | |||
|''We had played'' | |||
|- | |||
|''You had played'' | |||
|''You (plural) had played'' | |||
|- | |||
|''He/ She / It had played'' | |||
|''They had played'' | |||
|} | |||
* | ==== future perfect ==== | ||
* uses "'''will have'''" and + the simple past (past participle) form of the verb | |||
* indicates an action that will commence at some point in the future | |||
** ''By next Tuesday, I '''will have walked''' twelve miles'' | |||
== Verbs forms to know == | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Irregular verbs to know | |||
!verb | |||
!present | |||
!simple past | |||
!present participle | |||
!past participle | |||
!perfect tense | |||
! style="background-color:#b3b3b3" |incorrect | |||
participle | |||
|- | |||
|be | |||
|am/are/is | |||
|was | |||
|being | |||
|been | |||
|have/has been | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"| n/a | |||
|- | |||
|begin | |||
|begin | |||
|began | |||
|beginning | |||
|begun | |||
|have/has begun | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has began | |||
|- | |||
|break | |||
|break | |||
|broke | |||
|breaking | |||
|broken | |||
|have/has broken | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has broke | |||
|- | |||
|drink | |||
|drink | |||
|drank | |||
|drinking | |||
|drunk ("drunken" is also used as | |||
past participle adjective | |||
|have/has drunk | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drank | |||
|- | |||
|drive | |||
|drive | |||
|drove | |||
|driving | |||
|driven | |||
|have/has driven | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has drove | |||
|- | |||
|forget | |||
|forget | |||
|forgot | |||
|forgetting | |||
|forgotten | |||
|have/has forgotten | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has forgot | |||
|- | |||
|go | |||
|go/goes | |||
|went | |||
|going | |||
|gone | |||
|have/has gone | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has went | |||
|- | |||
|grow | |||
|grow/grows | |||
|grew | |||
|growing | |||
|grown | |||
|have/has grown | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has grew | |||
|- | |||
|hang | |||
| | |||
|hang/hung | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|lend | |||
|lend | |||
|lent | |||
|lending | |||
|lent | |||
|have/has lent | |||
| style="background-color:#cccccc" |have/has lended | |||
|- | |||
|swim | |||
|swim | |||
|swam | |||
|swimming | |||
|swum | |||
|have/has swum | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc" |have//has swam | |||
|- | |||
|write | |||
|write | |||
|wrote | |||
|writing | |||
|written | |||
|have/has written | |||
|style="background-color:#cccccc"|have/has wrote | |||
|} | |||
== Verb mixups == | |||
* | === lie v. lay: === | ||
* lie = to put oneself down | |||
** or be in the position of lying down | |||
== | * lay = to put down | ||
** especially regarding an object | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!present | |||
!simple past | |||
!present participle | |||
!past participle | |||
!perfect tense | |||
|- | |||
|lie | |||
|lay or lied | |||
|lying | |||
|lied/ lain | |||
|have/has lied (or lain) | |||
|- | |||
|lay | |||
|laid | |||
|laying | |||
|laid | |||
|have/has laid | |||
|} | |||
* | === may v. please === | ||
= modal verbs (express possibility) that change the meaning of another verb | |||
* may = indicates possibility or a request for permission (usually of oneself) | |||
** ''May I have a couple more donuts?'' | |||
* please = a polite command or request (usually of someone else_ | |||
** ''Please leave me alone!'' | |||
* rule: | |||
** may is used to ask for permission | |||
** please is used to make a request | |||
* ex.: | |||
** ''Please pass the salt'' = correct | |||
** ''May you pass the sale'' = incorrect | |||
=== may v. can === | |||
* please = asks for permission, or makes a reques | |||
* can = indicates ability | |||
** if the sentence is a request, use "may" instead of "can" | |||
=== teach v. learn === | |||
* teach = to provide learning | |||
* learn = to receive or engage in learning | |||
* ex. ''The student learned from what the teacher taught'' | |||
== Punctuation == | == Punctuation == | ||
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* singular possession. ''Owen's parents are nice'' << singular "Owen" | * singular possession. ''Owen's parents are nice'' << singular "Owen" | ||
* plural possession: ''The students' teacher is not so nice'' << plural "students" | * plural possession: ''The students' teacher is not so nice'' << plural "students" | ||
** note that some words are plural, so the possessive form will be '''''<nowiki/>'s''''' as opposed to '''''s'''''' | |||
*** ''That's the children's playground'' << children = plural, so the apostrophe goes before the '''s''' | |||
** similar words include, men, women, | |||
* note: compound possessives rule: | * note: compound possessives rule: | ||
** if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe | ** if the compound possessors both possess the same thing, only the second noun uses the apostrophe | ||
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** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't'' | ** ''would not >> wouldn't, can not >> can't, will not won't'' | ||
* | * contracting "is" on relative pronouns | ||
** ''that's easy, who's going?'' | |||
*** = that is easy, who is going | |||
** <u>note</u>: neither high school nor college admissions tests will use an apostrophe as a contraction for "is" or "are" with common nouns | |||
*** ex. ''That elephant's big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | |||
*** or, ''Those elephants'r big'' (with the 's" marking a slurred "is" sound in spoken | |||
3. indicate plurality | |||
* ex. "1960's", | |||
* the high school admissions test will not measure for this use of the apostrophe | |||
=== colon === | |||
<u>does 1 thing</u>: | |||
1. sets up an example or explanation, following an independent clause (IC) | |||
* the high school | * rules: | ||
** colons <u>must be preceded</u> by an IC | |||
** <u>can be</u> followed by any grammatical form or punctuation, except another colon | |||
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' cooking, cleaning and straightening things up'' | |||
*** ''Given so little time they did what they could''':''' they cooked, cleaned, and straightened things up'' | |||
** a colon would not follow "such as" since "such as" does the same thing as a colon | |||
*** "such as" would be preceded by a comma if non-restrictive | |||
**** ''I like playing board games, such as chess or checkers'' | |||
**** ''Doctors such as Dr. Jones are very caring'' | |||
* <u>note</u>: colons are not measured on high school entrance exams | |||
=== comma === | === comma === | ||
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* comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction | * comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction | ||
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."'' | ** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."'' | ||
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.'' | |||
'''5. set aside parenthetical information (appositives, relative clauses, etc.)''' | |||
* ex. | |||
** ''Steve, my neighbor, is not very nice.'' | |||
** ''Steve, who is my neighbor, is not very nice'' | |||
'''6. separate dates and place names''' | |||
* month, day, year : ''We took the test on April 11, 2023.'' | |||
* month day, year, in the middle of a sentence | |||
** O''n April 11, 2023, we took the test'' | |||
* no comma for Month Year: ''We took the test in April 2023.'' | |||
=== dash === | |||
<u>does 2 things</u>: | |||
1. acts like a colon | |||
* rule: if acting like a colon, there will be a single dash preceded by an IC | |||
2. acts like parentheses | |||
* rule: if acting like parentheses, there will be two dashes | |||
<u>does 2 things</u>: | |||
'''1. direct quotation''' | |||
* = the specific words attributed to someone | |||
** ''He said, "I do say."'' | |||
* see rules for commas above when using quotation marks | |||
'''2. indicate sarcasm or other reference''' | |||
* ''She is my "best friend"... not.'' | |||
* will note be measured on high school or college entrance exams | |||
=== parentheses === | |||
<u>does 1 thing</u>: | |||
* sets aside information <u>outside of the grammatical flow</u> of a sentence | |||
** i.e., the parentheses can interrupt other sentence parts: | |||
** ex. | |||
*** ''Birds (avian creatures) are amazing'' | |||
*** normally, we would not want to separate the subject "birds" from the verb "are" but the parentheses can do that to add important information to the sentence | |||
*** note that pairs of commas and dashes work similarly: | |||
**** ''Birds, avian creatures,are amazing'' | |||
**** ''Birds-- avian creatures -- are amazing'' | |||
* pairs of commas and dashes can act like parentheses | |||
=== quotation marks === | |||
*indicate a direct statement by a particular speaker | |||
*a comma separates a direct quotation from it's introduction: | |||
** ''The clown said, "I feel funny."'' | |||
** ''"I feel funny," said the clown.'' | |||
* rules: | * rules: | ||
** uses quotation marks around the quoted words | ** uses quotation marks around the quoted words | ||
** first word of the | ** first word of the quotation is capitalized | ||
** if | *** He said, "I say." | ||
** if the quotation ends a sentence, it will be followed by a period (often but not always inside the quotation mark) | |||
** the name of the speaker may also follow the quotation | |||
*** ''"A hammer can fix anything," he said, wryly.'' | |||
** if a question, will have a question mark | ** if a question, will have a question mark | ||
*** ''The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"'' | *** ''The clown asked, "Why are you so funny?"'' | ||
** the | ** if the speaker name is after a quoted question, the question mark replaces the comma: | ||
*** ''"Why are you so funny?" the clown asked.'' | |||
** exclamation points also replace the comma in a quotation | |||
* <u>note</u>: if the quoted portion is a fragment of a larger written quotation, the first word is not capitalized | |||
** but that will not be measured on high school admissions tests | |||
''' | === semicolon === | ||
<u>does 2 things</u>: | |||
'''1. combines independent clauses''' | |||
* test: | |||
** replace the semicoln with a period and see if both sides could stand as a sentence by themselves . If not, it is wrong. | |||
** if the semicolon separates (or combines) two distinct subject-verb combinations AND each could be a sentence by itself, then the semicolon is correct | |||
'''2. acts as a "super comma"''' | |||
''' | * a super comma is a list of examples separated by semicolons | ||
** ex. ''We're heading to Europe this summer: Florence, Italy; Valencia, Spain; and Munich, Germany.'' | |||
* | *<u>note</u>: this use will not appear on high school entrance exam, but it may appear on a college entrance exam | ||
== Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses == | == Comma and no comma with phrases and clauses == | ||
Line 343: | Line 772: | ||
* subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>: | * subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) are generally <u>non-restrictive</u>: | ||
** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.'' | ** ''I took the test yesterday, although I was tired.'' | ||
** ''Although I was tired,I took the test.'' | ** ''Although I was tired, I took the test.'' | ||
* subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) | * subordinating conjunctions create subordinate clauses (a form of a dependent clause) | ||
** ''although, because, since, while, etc.'' | ** ''although, because, since, while, etc.'' | ||
Line 386: | Line 815: | ||
*** which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy") | *** which = relative pronoun and subject of the relative clause "which saves energy") | ||
== | == Noun == | ||
=== proper noun capitalization === | === proper noun capitalization === | ||
* titles are capitalized | * proper noun = capitalized names for people, places, titles, organizations, etc. | ||
** the test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another | * formal titles are capitalized | ||
*** ex.: | ** the high school admissions test may show a two-word proper noun with one word capitalized but not another | ||
*** ex.: | |||
**** ''Dr. tom Jones is a famous physician'' << incorrect | |||
**** ''University of missouri'' << incorrect | |||
** note that "the" is not capitalized for proper names | |||
*** ''the Navy'' (correct) v. ''The Navy'' (incorrect) | |||
*** ''the Nationals'' (correct) v. ''The Commanders'' (incorrect) | |||
* generic or general professions or titles <u>are NOT</u> capitalized: | |||
** ''My favorite Pitcher was Jim Palmer'' << incorrect | |||
** ''Jim Palmer was a great Pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles'' << incorrect | |||
* seasons are NOT capitalized | |||
** We go to Maine in the summer | |||
=== attributive noun === | |||
= | * = nouns that modify another noun | ||
** but are not adjectives | |||
* '''''dog''' food, '''wine''' class, '''government''' class, '''class''' government'' | |||
* these nouns modify the 2nd noun | |||
* called "attributive" because they convey an "attribute" to the second noun | |||
* the attributive noun is singular (almost always) | |||
** bc it's acting like an adjective (which doesn't change plurality) | |||
*** i.e., ''red shoes'' instead of ''reds shoes'' (incorrect) | |||
**** so ''dog food'' instead of ''dogs food'' (incorrect) | |||
* the attributive noun is ALWAYS next to the noun it modifies | |||
** ''big dog bone'' instead of ''dog big bone'' (incorrect) | |||
== Pronoun == | |||
=== personal pronoun subjective & objective case === | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!Subjective | |||
!Example | |||
!Objective | |||
!Example | |||
|- | |||
|I | |||
|''You and I won'' | |||
|me | |||
|''They beat you and me'' | |||
|- | |||
|you | |||
|''You and I won'' | |||
|you | |||
|''They beat you and me'' | |||
|- | |||
|he / she/ it | |||
|''He and you won'' | |||
|him / her/ it | |||
|''They beat you and her'' | |||
|- | |||
|we | |||
|''We beat them'' | |||
|us | |||
|''They beat us'' | |||
|- | |||
|they | |||
|''They beat us'' | |||
|them | |||
|''We beat them'' | |||
|} | |||
To test the case of the pronoun in compound subjects or objects: | |||
* remove the first noun and test the pronoun | |||
** ''Steve and I went to the park.''versus | |||
** ''Steve and me went to the park'' | |||
** <u>remove</u> "Steve" | |||
*** ''Me went to the park'' = incorrec | |||
** ''She gave Joey and me a bad grade.'' | |||
** ''She gave Joey and I a bad grade'' | |||
** <u>remove</u> "Joey" | |||
*** ''She gave I a bad grade'' = incorrect | |||
* | * <u>common wrong pronoun answers include:</u> | ||
** Us kids are going << should be "We kids are going" | |||
*** <u>to test</u>: remove "kids" and you have "Us are going" = incorrect | |||
**** thus, "We are going" works | |||
=== personal pronouns and prepositions === | |||
* prepositions create a prep phrase | |||
* prepositional phrases consist of | |||
** preposition + object (noun or noun phrase) | |||
> | * prepositional phrases always use the OBJECTIVE CASE of personal pronouns | ||
** ''Between you and I, grammar sucks''. versus: | |||
** ''Between you and me, grammar sucks.'' | |||
*** | |||
** <u>remove</u> "you" and replace "between" with "for" | |||
*** can also be read, ''For you and me, grammar sucks'' | |||
*** ''For I, grammar sucks'' << incorrect (subjective case) | |||
*** ''For me, grammar sucks'' << correct (objectives case) | |||
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and he.'' | |||
** ''The car stopped right in front of the dog and him.'' | |||
*** remove "the dog" | |||
*** ''The car stopped right in front of he.'' << incorrect (subjective case) | |||
*** ''The car stopped right in front of him.'' << correct (objective case | |||
=== indefinite pronouns === | |||
* refer to a person, thing, amount, etc. in general (''any, none, some'') or to all of something (''all, both, each'') | |||
* indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on wether they refer to one or many/all of something | |||
* the high school admissions test may include subject-verb mismatch when using indefinite pronouns | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Singular Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="4" |third person singular conjugation = ''"s"'' as in ''it goes, it is, it seems'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!as pronoun | |||
!with preposition | |||
!as determiner | |||
|- | |||
|anyone / anything | |||
|''anything will do'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''each'' | |||
|''each goes well'' | |||
|''each of them goes well'' | |||
|''each dress is pretty'' | |||
|- | |||
|''either'' | |||
|''either works'' | |||
|''either of them works'' | |||
|''either choice will do'' | |||
|- | |||
|''every / everyone / everything'' | |||
|''everyone wants some'' | |||
|''everyone of them wants some'' | |||
|''every child loves candy'' | |||
|- | |||
|''much'' | |||
|''much is missing'' | |||
|''much of that is gone'' | |||
|''much fun was had'' | |||
|- | |||
|''neither'' | |||
|''neither agrees'' | |||
|''neither of them agrees'' | |||
|''neither witness agrees'' | |||
|- | |||
|''no one'' | |||
|''no one feels'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''nothing'' | |||
|''nothing is good'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|''n/a'' | |||
|- | |||
|''one / someone'' | |||
|''one wants'' | |||
|''one of them wants'' | |||
|''one boy wants'' | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Plural Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="4" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!pronoun example | |||
!with preposition | |||
!as determiner | |||
|- | |||
|all | |||
|all are fine | |||
|all of them are fine | |||
|all choices work | |||
|- | |||
|both | |||
|''both are fine'' | |||
|both of them are fine | |||
|both choices work | |||
|- | |||
|few | |||
|''few go there'' | |||
|few of them go | |||
|few people go | |||
|- | |||
|many | |||
|''many are the brave'' | |||
|many of them are | |||
|many people are | |||
|- | |||
|others | |||
|''others know enough'' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|several | |||
|several are bringing lunch | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns | |||
! colspan="3" |third person plural conjugation = ''they are, they go, they believe (no "s")'' | |||
|- | |||
!indefinite pronoun | |||
!singular | |||
!plural | |||
|- | |||
|all | |||
|''all is well here'' | |||
|all are well | |||
|- | |||
|any | |||
|''any of them is fine'' | |||
|any of them are okay | |||
|- | |||
|most | |||
|the most works | |||
|most work | |||
|- | |||
|none | |||
|''none goes well'' | |||
|none go well | |||
|- | |||
|some | |||
|some is enough | |||
|some are not enough | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
* '''''each, every, few, some,''''' etc. can be either a determiner (modifier) or pronoun | |||
** as determiners, these words modify a noun: | |||
*** ''every person thinks so, few people think so'' | |||
*** some bees sting, all vehicles | |||
** as pronouns, they are the subject of a sentence | |||
=== | == Adjective == | ||
=== cumulative v. coordinate adjectives === | |||
* cumulative adjectives = no comma separating them | |||
* the 1st adjective modifies the 2nd adj + the noun | |||
** ex. ''stupid smart people'' | |||
*** = "smart people" who are stupid | |||
*** ''expensive small gift'' | |||
**** = expensive "small gift" | |||
** ''small expensive gift'' | |||
*** = small "expensive gift" | |||
* coordinate adjectives = have a comma separating them | |||
** ex. big, red balloon | |||
*** = the balloon is both big and red balloon | |||
*** ''red, big balloon = big, red balloon = big & red ballon'' | |||
** test: if the adjectives are coordinate, then | |||
*** you can add a coordinating conjunction, such as "and" in between them | |||
*** you can switch them | |||
**** and it means the same thing | |||
== Adverb == | |||
* adverb modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb | |||
* in the high school entrance exam, the adverb may be measured by <u>confusion with an adjective</u> | |||
* ex. | |||
** ''She ran home quick'' << incorrect, as "quick" modifies the verb "ran" so it needs to be the adverb, "quickly" | |||
** ''She ran home quickly'' << correct | |||
** ''He yelled angry at the man'' << incorrect as "angry" is an adjective, which modifies a noun | |||
** ''He yelled angrily'' << correct | |||
*** or ''He is angry'' << the adjective "angry" is the subject complement connected by the linking verb "is" | |||
* adverbs that do not use the '''''-ly''''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!adverb | |||
!adjective | |||
|- | |||
|better | |||
|better | |||
|- | |||
|fast | |||
|fast | |||
|- | |||
|hard | |||
|hard | |||
|- | |||
|late | |||
|late | |||
|} | |||
=== | == prepositions == | ||
* prepositions create a "prepositional phrase" that adds information to a noun, verb, or a sentence, generally | |||
** prepositional phrase = <u>preposition</u> + <u>object of the preposition</u> | |||
* prepositions create a relationship between the modified element and the <u>object of the preposition</u> | |||
** that relationship depends on the preposition | |||
** i.e. the prepositions relate their objects to the rest of the sentence | |||
** prepositions include: | |||
*** '''''about, above, among, at, before, between, by, down, during, for, in, into, near, next to, on, out, out of, to, toward, until, up, upon''''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
!Subject-Verb | |||
!preposition | |||
!object | |||
!incorrect preposition | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| colspan="2" | -- prepositional phrase -- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|''We sat'' | |||
|'''''in''''' | |||
|''the grandstand'' | |||
|''We sat '''for''' the grandstand'' | |||
|- | |||
|''Every afternoon we go'' | |||
|'''''to''''' | |||
|''the bakery'' | |||
|''Every afternoon we go '''on''' the bakery'' | |||
|- | |||
|''The shady spot is'' | |||
|'''''under''''' | |||
|''the tree'' | |||
|''The shady spot is '''over''' the tree'' | |||
|- | |||
|''Stop reading'' | |||
|'''''at''''' | |||
|''the chapter's end'' | |||
|''Stop reading '''for''' the chapter's end'' | |||
|} | |||
== homophones == | |||
* words that sound the same (or about the same) but spell and mean differently | |||
* high school assessment tests will commonly use: | |||
* '''''accept, except''''' | |||
** accept = verb, to welcome or admit | |||
*** ''The school '''accepted''' me!'' | |||
** except = adverb, indicating not included; used similarly to "but" | |||
*** ''Every school '''except''' one accepted me.'' | |||
* '''''I have, I'd''''' | |||
* '''''its, it's''''' | |||
** ''its'' = singular possessive pronoun | |||
** ''it's'' = contraction of "it is" | |||
* '''''there, they're, their''''' | |||
** ''there'' = indicates specificity or location | |||
** ''they're'' = contraction of "they are" | |||
** ''their'' = plural possessive pronoun | |||
* '''''then, than''''' | |||
** ''then'' = indicates a chronology (next) or a prior time ("since then") | |||
** ''than'' = makes a comparison | |||
* '''''to, too, two''''' | |||
** ''to'' = preposition (or particle) indicating a direction or purpose | |||
** ''too'' = also | |||
*** ''two'' = 2 | |||
* '''''wear, we're, were, where''''' | |||
** ''wear'' = to have clothes on | |||
** ''we're'' = contraction of "we are" | |||
** ''were'' = plural simple past tense of "to be" | |||
** ''where'' = indicates location or situation | |||
* '''''who's, whose''''' | |||
** ''who's'' = contraction for "who is" | |||
** ''whose'' = possessive form of the pronoun "who" | |||
* '''''you're, your''''' | |||
** you're = contraction for "you are" | |||
** your = possessive form of "you" | |||
* others may include: | |||
** '''''capital, capitol''''' | |||
*** ''capital'' = the offical or main city or place of a state or country | |||
**** can also mean: "money," "head of" | |||
*** ''capitol'' = the building in which the government resides or operates | |||
** '''''site, cite, sight''''' | |||
** '''''fare, fair''''' | |||
** '''''peace, piece''''' | |||
* note: compare to ''homonyms'', which are words that spell the same but pronounce or mean differently | |||
** ex. "bark" can mean the sound a dog makes or the skin of a tree | |||
** high school and college admissions tests will not measure this concept | |||
== Redundancy == | |||
> | * in word usage and writing, we want to avoid unnecessary <u>repetition</u> (redundancy) of words or ideas | ||
* '''''again, also, back''''' | |||
** ''The clerk refunded '''back''' the money'' << refund = to give back, so "back" is redundant | |||
** ''In addition, we '''also''' saw the zebras.'' << in addition = also, so "also" is redundant | |||
* <u>note</u>: college admissions tests will also test for redundancy, such as: | |||
** ''Runoff water storage also increases savings on water costs.'' << where "savings" and "costs" are rendundant | |||
== Misc concepts, skills & words == | |||
=== double negative === | |||
< | * look for negative words that create a "double" or redundant negative | ||
* usually the first nagative will be hiddent in a contraction | |||
** ''didn't, couldn't, won't,'' etc. | |||
* ex. | |||
** ''She coudn't find it no where'' <<incorrect double negative | |||
** ''Janie didn't see nobody'' << incorrect double negative | |||
=== | === either/or vs. neither/nor === | ||
* when '''either''' & '''neither''' are conjunctions, they require a matching counterpart | |||
* thus we have | |||
** ''either ... or'' | |||
*** = positive, or affirming | |||
*** ''I'd be glad to have either this or that.'' | |||
** ''neither ... nor'' | |||
*** = negative or negating | |||
*** ''We saw neither fish nor fowl.'' | |||
* note: either and neither have other grammatical functions (adverb, pronoun), but the high school placement test will not specifically measure those uses | |||
** just know that ''either'' goes with ''or'' and ''neither'' goes with ''nor'' | |||
** | |||
=== many v. much === | |||
* '''many''' is for nouns that can be counted | |||
** ''He's owns many shoes.'' | |||
* '''much''' is used for nouns that cannot be counted (non-count nouns) | |||
** ''There is much work to do.'' | |||
** Noncount nouns include | |||
*** ''art, electricity, happiness, money, music, rice, water, etc.'' | |||
*** note that these non-count nouns are singular ("art is...") | |||
=== nothing v. any === | |||
* '''''nothing''''' indicates an absence of something | |||
* '''''any''''' indicates a lack of or generality of something | |||
** ''are there any people here?'' < asks if anyone is possibly there? | |||
** ''nothing is going on'' << indicates an absolute absence | |||
=== questions === | |||
* a narrator may ask a question that seems like a spoken quotation, but it may not need quotation marks | |||
** ex.''What are we doing next?'' | |||
*** as opposed to | |||
*** ''"What are we doing next?" Steve asked'' | |||
**** note that the question mark replaces the comma | |||
* tests may present a question that contains an error in "has" or "had" for a question | |||
** turn the question into a statement and see if the subect-verb match is correct | |||
** ex | |||
*** ''Have you seen my friends?'' | |||
**** = You have seen my friends | |||
*** ''How long has they been working on it?'' | |||
**** ''They has been working on it'' << <u>incorrect</u> (needs the plural auxiliary verb "have") | |||
= | === quotation marks not needed === | ||
* a thought or narrated statement does not need quotation marks | |||
** quotation marks separate words distinctly stated by someone other than the narrator or author | |||
** so the narrator or author can say something or say something someone else said without quotation marks | |||
** ex. | |||
*** ''Mr. Jackson told us to sit down.'' | |||
*** ''If you're hungry, let me know.'' | |||
* commands with a stated name do not need quotation marks: | |||
** ''Jerry, leave your paper right there.'' | |||
* when a relative clause is employed following "stated" or "said," the quotation mark is not needed: | |||
** ex. ''She said the test was super easy'' | |||
*** = ''She said [that] the test was super easy'' | |||
**** so quotation marks are not necessary | |||
=== | === "that there" error === | ||
* ''That there dog is mean'' << incorrect because "that" and "there" are used incorrectly as adverbs to modify noun | |||
* it could be written: | |||
** ''That dog there is mean'' | |||
*** "there" is now an adverb modifying the verb "is" | |||
*** and "that" is a determiner (indicates a specific dog, as in "that one") | |||
* | * or, if "that" is used as a relative pronoun: | ||
** ''What he means to say is '''that''' there are too many to choose from.'' < "that" = relative pronoun, and "there" is an adverb | |||
[[Category:Language Arts]] | |||
[[Category:Grammar]] | |||