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'''Grammar'''
'''Grammar'''
* = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words)
* = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words)
* technically, grammar is
** '''phonology''' = sounds that create word parts and words)
** '''morphology''' = how words are formed and interact with each other
** '''syntax''' = rules for the arrangement of words to create meaning
*** syntax defines the semantical purpose (meaning) of language


'''Article purpose'''
'''Article purpose'''
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== Sentence ==
== Sentence ==
* a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate
* a complete and grammatically correct thought that contains at a minimum a subject (or an implied subject) and a verb or predicate
** i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought.
** i.e., "I shop." = a complete sentence and thought.
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** phrases
** phrases
** prepositions, etc.
** prepositions, etc.
=== Constituents ===
[[File:Sentence-constituent-parts school4schools-wiki-grammar.jpg|500px||border|right]]
* constituent = a word or words that creates a unique grammatical unit in a sentence
** word origin:
*** ''con-'' = with
*** ''stitu'' = from PIE ''-sta'' and Latin ''statuare'' for "to stand"
*** ''-ent'' = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun)
* constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence
** constituent parts operates as an hierarchy
*** i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun


=== Categories of sentence purposes ===
=== Categories of sentence purposes ===
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== Subject ==
== Subject ==
* one of two parts of a sentence or a clause  
* one of two parts of a sentence or a clause
* the subject is the "doer" of the  
** subject + predicate (verb)
* see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts
* the subject is the "doer" of the
** see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts
* here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
* here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
=== subject complement ===
* adds information to a subject following a linking verb (''is, seems, sounds,'' etc.)
** the word that follows the linking verb "complements" or "completes" the subect
*** "It was late"
*** "Gillian is a doctor"


=== subject phrase ===
=== subject phrase ===


* the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word
* the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word
** a phrase = 2 or more words that do not contain a finite verb (verb that has a subject)
* a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence
* a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence
** ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
** ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?"
*** so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,  
*** so a more complete "subject phrase" might be,  
**** "The weather conditions are poor"
**** "''The '''weather conditions''''' are poor"
**** "The conditions of those teams are poor"
**** "''The '''conditions of those teams''''' are poor"
**** "'''''Being smart''''' helps on that test"


=== subject clause ===
* just as a subject may be a compound phrase ("'''Getting there''' is the best part of the trip"), a noun clause (contains a finite verb) may act as a subject (or object).
* noun clauses tend to use "that" as a subordinating conjunction that creates the noun clause
* ex.
** '''''The team that played smarter, not harder''', won.''SUBJECT                                            | VERB |<---------------- subject clause --------------> | 
** ''A question I thought about beforehand escaped me when it was time to ask it''SUBJECT                                          | VERB |<---------------- subject clause ---------> | 
== Object ==
* the recipient of the actions
** see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts
* objects follow "transitive" verbs, which indicate an action that necessarily "acts" upon something
** ex. "I ''hit the ball''"
*** hit = transitive verb (requires an object)
*** ball = the recipient of the action
=== object complement ===
* a word that modifies a direct object
** that is, it adds information to a direct object
*** as opposed to a subject complement, which adds information to a subject
** usually a noun, pronoun or adjective
* object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action
** such as, ''appoint, call, choose, create, declare, direct, elect, make, name, tell''
*** ex. to appoint:
**** ''The committee appointed her.''
***** her = the recipient of the action (direct object)
** if we add a complement to the object, we are describing what she was appointed to:
*** ''The committee appointed her president.''
**** note that "president" is not an indirect object
***** it is not the recipient of "appoint" therefore it is a "complement" to the object
**** ex.
***** ''The teacher considers the student '''worthy''''' (object complement adjective)
***** ''The workers painted the wall '''white'''''  (object complement noun)
* object complements can also come in the form of phrases or clauses
** ''My mom declared the cookies '''out of bounds'''''  (prepositional phrase)
** ''The team selected the player '''who was the best''''' (relative clause object complement)
== Predicate ==
== Predicate ==
* from Latin ''praedicatum'' for "something declared"
* from Latin ''praedicatum'' for "something declared"
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** "The kids are hungry"
** "The kids are hungry"


== Object ==
== Clause ==
* the subject is the "doer" of the
{{:Clause (grammar)}}
* see [[Parts of Speech]] for list of sentence parts
* here we will look at the roles and forms of a subject in a sentence
 
=== subject complement ===
* adds information to a subject following a linking verb (see above)
* = an object that is not a noun
* ex.  "Jillian thought it was late"
 
=== object complement ===
* a word that modifies an object
* object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action
** such as, ''appoint, call, create, declare, direct, elect, tell
>> to complete
 
 
{{Clause (grammar)}}


== Phrase ==  
== Phrase ==  
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** [https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/phrase.htm The Phrase (chompchomp.com)]  
** [https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/phrase.htm The Phrase (chompchomp.com)]  
** [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-phrases.html English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)]
** [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-phrases.html English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)]
=== absolute phrase ===
* modifies the main clause of a sentence
** and not just a single word
* contains a noun and an adjective
** the adjective can be a prepositional phrase or a past or present participle adjective
* absolute phrases add non-essential information to a sentence


=== adjective phrase ===
=== adjective phrase ===
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*** well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle)
*** well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle)


=== adverb or adverbial phrase ===
=== adverb phrase or adverbial phrase ===
* two or more words that operate as an adverb to modify an action
* examples:
** ''I'm staying '''until closing'''''"
** '''''She'll be there '''in a minute'''''*
*** * note that when a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it is technically an adverbial phrase
** ''He ran '''very quickly'''''
 
=== appositive phrase ===
 
* "appositive" is an adjective that means "next to"
** prefix '''''ap-''''' = towards
*** (related to the prefix "ad", but switches to "ap" when placed before a "P"
*** such as "apparent" which means "ap"/into + "parare"/visible, i.e. "into view or sight"
** root '''''posit''''' = is from Latin ''ponere'' for "to place", i.e., "in position"
** suffix -'''''ive''''' makes an adjective (from a verb)
* the '''appositive phrase''' is two or more words that are next to another word in order to clarify, define, or identify it
** note: a phrase is two or more words that does not contain a subject-verb
** ex.
*** ''"Jonas Samson''', a doctor of law,''' practices on the higher court"''
*** ''"My friend '''Tony the Shark''' is an excellent card player"''
*** ''"'''A thoughtful person''', she gives good advice"''
*** ''"'''An expert on trees, soil, and insects''', arborists have great information to help design your garden"''
** a single noun can be "in apposition" (thus it is not a phrase)
*** sometimes called "an appositive" (even though the words is technically an adjective)
*** ex.
**** ''"My friend '''Tony''' is an excellent card player"''
**** Ringing bells
** when in the form of a clause, the apposition is a noun clause
*** a clause has a subject + verb


=== complement or requisite phrase ===
=== complement or requisite phrase ===
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=== infinitive phrase ===
=== infinitive phrase ===
* infinitives = "to" form of a verb
* infinitive = the "to" form of a verb
** but that acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
* infinitives acts as a noun, adjective or adverb
*** ex. "I decided ''to go'' to the park"
* infinitives are formed by adding the particle "to" before a verb
**** "to go" is an infinitive phrase that acts as the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
** the infinitive indicates an action not as a direct action (verb) but as a thing or descriptor that indicates some action
**** i.e. it is the object of what "I decided"  
*** i.e., "to run" can be a noun, adjective or adverb, but it still indicates the action "run"
**** "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go"
* infinitive as a <u>noun</u>:
*** ex. "The teacher reminded the class to study for the test tomorrow"
** "'''''To go''' is the best decision"''
**** "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
*** "to go" is the subject of the sentence
***** "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class"
** "''I decided '''to go''' to the park''"
* note: sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive:
*** "to go" is the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided"
**** i.e. it is the object of what "I decided"
**** note that "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go"
** "''The teacher reminded the class '''to study''' for the test tomorrow"''
*** "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded"
*** "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class"
* infinitive as an adjective
** "''The dog wanted the cake '''to drop''' on the floor"''
*** "to drop" is an adjective that describes the "cake"
* infinitive as an adverb
** ''"Jonesy drove himself '''to learn"'''''
*** "to learn" is an adverb that describes the verb "drove"
**** note that in this sentence, "Jonesy drove himself to school", the "to" is a preposition and not a particle
* sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive:
** ex. "The waiter made me wait"
** ex. "The waiter made me wait"
*** "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait")
*** "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait")
* infinitives can have their own objects
** ''She bought flowers to make him happy''
*** "to make" modifies "bought" (as an adverb) or "flowers" (as an adjective)
*** "him" is the object of the infinitive "to make"
**** "happy" is the object complement of "him"
* see: [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)]
* see: [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)]
=== introductory phrase ===
* introduces a main clause
* generally followed by a comma to separate it from the main clause
* types of introductory phrases
** absolute phrase (''Tools in hand'', I went to work without reading the manual)
** appositive phrase (''Quite useful'', the manual is a must-read)
** infinitive phrase (''To know how'', you need to read the manual'')''
** participial phrase (''Not knowing how'', I had to read the manual)
** prepositional phrase (''Inside the box'', you will find the manual)
=== noun phrase ===
=== noun phrase ===
* two or more words that together act as a noun
** noun phrases may include modifiers or determiners
*** the little dog
*** my little dog
** noun phrases may be the subject or object of a sentence:
*** "The little dog begged for a bone"
*** "I ordered the little dog to sit"
** noun phrases are easy to see as they include a noun and together act like a noun
*** test out a noun phrase by replacing the phrase with a pronoun:
**** "The little dog begged for a bone"= "He begged for a bone"
**** "I ordered him to sit"
** gerund phrases are more difficult to distinguish
*** especially as to if the gerund is acting as a noun or an adjective/adverb
* gerund phrases are noun phrases:
** a gerund phrase may include an object of the gerund, adjectives, infinitive  or a prepositional phrase, ex.:
*** "''Watching my boring professor drone on about grammar'' leaves me bored beyond crying"
**** the gerund "watching" is the subject
***** note that "crying" is gerund, as well
** when the gerund phrase becomes descriptive, it becomes a participial or adjective phrase:
*** "Running with the ball, he scored!" = "running" describes "he", thus it is an adjective
**** if the present participle cannot be replaced by a distinct noun, then it is an adjective and not a gerund (noun)
***** we cannot say, "running with the ball scored" so "running" = a present participle adjective not a gerund
**** see also, "He scored running with the ball"
**** or, "He scored 12 points running with the ball"
***** in both cases the present participle acts as a modifier (adjective or adverb)
*** it's easier to see with this gerund phrase:
**** "The doctor said ''smoking is bad''" = gerund phrase as direct object
* see [https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/gerund-phrase/ Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)]


=== participial phrase ===
=== participial or participle phrase ===
* a type of adjective phrase
* a type of adjective phrase
* participial phrases "show" (describe, act as modifier) rather than "tell" (show action)
* uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective
* uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective
** note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund)
** note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund)
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*** the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective
*** the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective
*** so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work"
*** so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work"
** or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"  
** or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"\


=== prepositional phrase ===
=== prepositional phrase ===
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== Style & usage ==
== Style & usage ==
>> note: to create larger entry for style & usage to be linked here <<
=== active versus passive voice ===
==== active voice====
* = the subject and verb are directly stated
** as in, ''He gave the dog a bone'' = subject + verb + indirect object + object
* transitive verbs (which require an object) are always active voice
** ''I ate the entire pizza''
==== passive voice ====
* = the verb acts upon the subject, i.e., the subject follows the verb
** as in, ''The dog was given a bone by them'' = object + verb + subject (+ prep/phrase)
* passive voice uses the auxiliary verb "to be" + the past participle of the action verb
** as in, ''The entire pizza '''was eaten''' by me''
* when to use passive voice:
** passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence
*** so if the object of the sentence is the important idea, then passive voice is fine
*** especially if the subject is irrelevant to the idea:
*** ex. ''The dog was given a bone''
**** focus is on the dog and the bone, and we don't need to state who gave it the bone
* passive voice can be "weaselly" when used to avoid responsibility for something:
** Son: "''Dad, your favorite glass was broken''"
** Father: "''Who broke it?''"
** Son: "''Uh, somebody...''"
* see
** [[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/ Active vs. Passive Voice (grammarly.com)]]
=== periods ===
=== periods ===
* inside or outside qoutations?  
* inside or outside qoutations?  
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== Conjunction ==
== Conjunction ==
* conjunctions combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses)
* conjunctions conjoin, combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses)
* see parts of speech
=== conjunctions that combine words ====
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:10px"
* coordinators
|+ The 7 coordinating conjunctions
** coordinate or combine individual words or phrases:
|-
*** as in:
! Alphab. list !!colspan="2" | FANBOYS list
**** ''apples '''and''' oranges are similar '''and''' distinct fruits''
|-
**** ''I only like apples '''or''' oranges that are ripe''
| and || F || for
****
|-
* correlative conjunction
|but || A || and
** creates a combination or contrast of actions or ideas:
|-
** ''and, or'', ''neither, nor'', etc.
|for || N || nor
|-
|or || B || but
|-
|nor || O || or
|-
|so || Y || yet
|-
|yet||S|| so
|-
|}
=== coordinating conjunctions ===
* = combine independent clauses (clauses that can stand as sentences on their own)


=== subordinating conjunctions ===
==== conjunctions that combine sentence parts ====
* = conjunctions that "subordinate" or turn an independent clause into a subordinate clause, i.e., a sentence that cannot stand on its own
** coordinating conjunction
* = create a need for additional information and sets up or adds to the information that follows in the dominant or main clause
** subordinating conjunction (SWABI)
** ex.: "The dog played with his toy every day until it wore out" can be phrased using a subordinating conjunction, as per:
==== conjunctions that coordinate or conjoin ideas====
** "Until it wore out, the dog played with his toy every day."
** conjunctive adverb
*** "Until it wore out" is not a complete sentence or thought
* see  
{| class="wikitable"
** [[Parts of speech#Conjunction]] for more on conjunctions
|+ Subordinating conjunctions
|-
| after || although || as || as if || as long as
|-
| as much as || as soon as || as though || because || before
|-
| even  || even if || even though || if || if only
|-
| if then || if when|| inasmuch || just as || lest
|-
| now || now that || now when || once || provided
|-
| provided that || rather than || since || so that || supposing
|-
| than || that || though || till || unless
|-
| until || when || whenever || where || whereas
|-
| where if || wherever || whether || which || while
|-
| who || whoever || why
|-
|}
* see
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar) Conjunction (grammar) (wiki)]]


== Introductory clauses & phrases ==
== Introductory clauses & phrases ==
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=== introductory phrase ===
=== introductory phrase ===


* a phrase that introduces an independent clause
** usually a prepositional phrase or a participial phrase
*** ''"'''On Thursdays''', I get out."'' (prepositional phrase)
*** '''''"Feeling hungry,''' I bought some fries"'' (participial phrase)


== Modifiers, qualifiers & intensifiers ==
== Modifiers ==
=== modifiers ===
* modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence
* modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence
* modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader
* modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader
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** absolute phrase
** absolute phrase
** Nouns as modifiers
** Nouns as modifiers
=== qualifiers ===
* qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word
* types of qualifiers:
>> to do


=== intensifiers ===
=== intensifiers ===
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* [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)]
* [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)]


=== qualifiers ===
* qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word
* qualifiers can be adverbs or determiners
* types of qualifiers:
** adverbs: ''always, frequently sometimes, usually,''
** determiners: ''few, many, some,''
=== modifier errors: dangling modifiers ===
* a modifier that has no word or phrase to modify
** i.e., it stands by itself, which is inherently illogical since a modifier must have something to modify
** usually, dangling modifiers occur with participial phrases (using the -ing present participle) or prepositional phrases
** dangling modifiers frequently mistake the target of the modification, such as modifying one thing, then discussing another
** examples:
** wrong: ''While playing around, it was late''
*** correct: ''While playing around, I noticed it was late"
** wrong: ''Driving to school, I forgot my homework''
*** correct: ''Driving to school, I realized I forgot my homework''
=== modifier errors: misplaced modifiers ===
* a modifier that is next to or seemingly modifies the word or phrase
* examples.
** wrong: ''The student failed the test in the back of the class''
*** correct: ''The student in the back of the class failed the test''
** wrong: ''The teacher gave a grade to the student that was really good''
*** correct: ''The teacher gave a really good grade to the student''
** wrong: ''Jamie chased the cat in his pajamas''
*** correct: ''In her pajamas, Jamie chased the cat''
=== modifier errors: pre and post adverbs ===
* modifier placement can change the meaning of a sentence:
* example:
** ''The student almost failed every test''
** v. ''The student failed almost every test''
*** here the modifier "almost" is an adverb
** ''The mechanic only works on trucks on Tuesdays''
*** = on Tuesdays the mechanic works on trucks and nothing else
** v. ''The mechanic works on trucks only on Tuesdays''
*** = it is only on Tuesdays that the mechanic will work on trucks (but might also work on cars, as well)


== Sentence diagramming ==
== Sentence diagramming ==
* diagraming sentences means identifying every part of speech of the words in a sentence
[[File:Purported-purpose-of-punctuation-diagram.jpg|450px|right|The diagrammed sentence is build around the core subject-verb]]
* See [[Parts of Speech]]
* diagraming sentences means identifying word and sentence parts
* see [https://parentingpatch.com/using-nouns-noun-phrases-object-complements/ Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements]
** and arranging them according to their relationship to the main clause/s of the sentence
** {https://parentingpatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2013-03-09-Using-Nouns-and-Noun-Phrases-as-Object-Complements-1.jpg]
* sentence diagrams help students to understand the grammatical mechanics of a sentence
* while not taught in schools, sentence diagramming can be empowering
* see [[Parts of Speech]]
* here for a diagrammed sentence showing noun phrases:
** [https://parentingpatch.com/using-nouns-noun-phrases-object-complements/ Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements (parentingpatch.com)]
** [https://parentingpatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2013-03-09-Using-Nouns-and-Noun-Phrases-as-Object-Complements-1.jpg Click here for diagrammed sentence image (parentingpatch.com)]


== vocabulary & definitions ==
== vocabulary & definitions ==
=== Attributive ===
=== Appositive ===
=== Clause ===
=== Colloquial ===
===Denotation and Connotation ===
===Denotation and Connotation ===
* denotation = literal meaning of a word
* denotation = literal meaning of a word
* connotation = associations wit words  
* connotation = associations wit words  
** generally positive or negative associations
** generally positive or negative associations
=== Idiom/ Idiomatic ===
* grammatical idiom
** words or phrases that are used simply because they are used
** = don't have specific rules
** note: prepositions are not idiomatic
* idiom as sayings or expressions
** idioms are common sayings that express an idea figuratively
*** but if taken literally are nonsensical
** ex.
*** "''Don't beat around the bush''"
*** "''Chip off the old block''"
*** "''Got the extra mile''"
=== Phrase ===
=== Grammatical oddities ===
==== anacoluthon ====
>> see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacoluthon
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