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For a basic outline see '''[[Ancient Egypt Simple Outline]]'''
[[File:Egypt_Pyramids_All_Gizah_Pyramids_sm_wiki.jpg|right|frame|Great Pyramids (wikipedia)]]
[[File:Egypt_Pyramids_All_Gizah_Pyramids_sm_wiki.jpg|right|frame|Great Pyramids (wikipedia)]]
'''Ancient Egypt'''
[[category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[category:World History]]
<pre>TODO:
* Herodotus descriptions, including
** crocodile hunting (catch them by putting mud in their eyes!)
** tamed crocodiles in temples in Fayum</pre>
See also:
* [[Ancient Egypt simple outline]]
* [[:Category:Ancient Egypt]]


'''Article Objective'''
'''Article Objective'''
* this comprehensive outline covers ancient Egypt from prehistory to the fall of the New Kingdom and subsequent foreign invasions (up until Alexander the Great)
* this comprehensive outline covers ancient Egypt from prehistory to the fall of the New Kingdom  
** article to be build up to cover subsequent foreign invasions up until Roman period (or another article to cover that)
* this article also reviews ancient Egyptian geography, technology, culture and religion.


'''A note about the "dynastic"''' chronology as used in this outline:
'''A note about the "dynastic"''' chronology as used in this outline:
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* using dynasties makes more sense and does not add to the complexity of teaching the subject: rather, it simplifies and makes the subject more understandable
* using dynasties makes more sense and does not add to the complexity of teaching the subject: rather, it simplifies and makes the subject more understandable


 
'''A note on format and tense'''
Wikipedia entry: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt]
* this article may have inconsistent formatting
Wikipedia "simple English" entry: [http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt]
* this article may have inconsistent or variable use of tense
 
<br><br>


==Notes & Objectives==
==Notes & Objectives==
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===Nile River===
===Nile River===
==== Nile summary ====
* Nile Valley = ancient Egypt
* Nile Valley = ancient Egypt
* Egypt was accurately described by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus as "The Gift of the Nile"
* Egypt was accurately described by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus as "The Gift of the Nile"
* big idea here = "no Nile, no Egypt"
* big idea here = "no Nile, no Egypt"
* Egypt = final 800 miles of the Nile as it runs northward to Mediterranean Sea
* Egypt = final 800 miles of the Nile as it runs northward to Mediterranean Sea
* [Nile River] characteristics:
* longest river in the world: 4150 miles long!
** longest river in the world: 4150 miles long!
==== Nile geographic characteristics and details ====
** flows north  
* flows north  
*** flows into Mediterranean Sea
** flows into Mediterranean Sea
*** Nile Delta formed as flood waters spread out over coastal lowlands at river mouth
** Nile Delta formed as flood waters spread out over coastal lowlands at river mouth
** sources = Blue & White Nile:  
** the Egyptian words for "East" and "West" are the equivalent of "Right" and "Left"
*** White Nile from tropical, Central Africa
*** only "left" and "right" when facing upstream (i.e., facing south)
*** Blue Nile from mountains of Ethiopia
*** so when facing upstream (south), East was to the right and West was to the left
**** most water & silt = from Blue Nile
*** this affirms the importance to the Ancient Egyptians of the Nile and its unknown origins
**** June monsoon rains in Ethiopia = floods that bring silt downstream
* Ancient Egyptians thought the Nile began somewhere south of the Cataracts (falls)
**** see Google Earth coordinates for Blue Nile source region >> todo
** from underground sources
* Nile Flooding
* sources = Blue & White Nile:  
** White Nile from tropical, Central Africa
** Blue Nile from mountains of Ethiopia
*** most water & silt = from Blue Nile
*** June monsoon rains in Ethiopia = floods that bring silt downstream
*** see Google Earth coordinates for Blue Nile source region >> todo
==== Nile Flooding ====
** length of river = long, slow flooding season in Egypt
** length of river = long, slow flooding season in Egypt
** the Nile floods slowly:  
** the Nile floods slowly:  
*** 3 months to rise & fall (
*** 3 months to rise & fall
*** Egypt flood season = August to October
*** Egypt flood season = August to October
**** slowly rises in August
**** slowly rises in August
**** stays high September
**** stays high September
**** slowly recedes in October
**** slowly recedes in October
** Nile floods = predictable
==== characteristics of the Nile flooding ====
* Nile floods = predictable
** Nile floods = calm
** Nile floods = calm
** floods bring silt
** floods bring silt
** flood plains = farmland, but have to be re-organized every year
** flood plains = farmland, but have to be re-organized every year
** Nile process formed Egyptian seasons of three, 4 month cycles:
* Nile process formed Egyptian seasons of three, 4 month cycles:
*** ''Akhet'' = flooding
** ''Akhet'' = flooding
**** during flooding season, farmers were displaced and could serve as laborers for large projects such as pyramids and temples
*** during flooding season, farmers were displaced and could serve as laborers for large projects such as pyramids and temples
**** also during flooding season, shipment of stone and other goods by boat more extensive due to wider river flow
*** also during flooding season, shipment of stone and other goods by boat more extensive due to wider river flow
**** for example, location of the pyramids = just beyond the flood plain
*** for example, location of the pyramids = just beyond the flood plain
**** during high flood period, Nile depth = 25-33 ft deep and current was more rapid = quicker movement
*** during high flood period, Nile depth = 25-33 ft deep and current was more rapid = quicker movement
*** ''Peret'' = growing season
** ''Peret'' = growing season
*** ''Shemu'' = harvest season (no rain)
** ''Shemu'' = harvest season (no rain)
* periods of drought
==== appearance of the star Sirius marks flooding season ====
** larger climate patterns led to times of weakened river flow and less flooding
* the star, Sirius, announces the arrival off the floods
** = periods of famine & political upheaval
** also known as the "dog star"
** most important example = end of Old Kingdom and into the Middle Kingdom  
** brightest start in the night sky
* underground water
** when Sirius appears on the horizon after disappearing during the winter (blocked from earth's view by the sun)
** clay, sand, and pour rock base = large underground water flows
** it marks the flooding season
*** note the Greeks called the summer months the "dog days" when Sirius appears
==== periods of drought ====
* larger climate patterns led to times of weakened river flow and less flooding
* = periods of famine & political upheaval
* most important example = end of Old Kingdom and into the Middle Kingdom  
==== Fayoum Oasis & Lake Moeris ====
* a basin in the desert to the west of the Nile in the upper part of Upper Egypt
* Nile floods fed the lake over time
** fed by the Nile and eventually connected to the Nile by Middle Kingdom pharaohs who improved irrigation in response to low flooding
** Middle Kingdom c. 2300 BC the lake was widened and the canal connecting it to the Nile deepened
** the lake served as reservoir for dry periods
* Egypt's most important oasis
* principal Neolithic site (early agriculture)
** has archeological evidence of earliest farming in Egypt
** site of the city Crocodilopolis (Greek name) or "Faiyum" (Arabic name)
** oases and water sources plenty by digging wells in lowlands alongside the Nile
** oases and water sources plenty by digging wells in lowlands alongside the Nile
** most important oasis = Fayoum Oasis, which was fed by the Nile and eventually connected to the Nile by Middle Kingdom pharaohs who improved irrigation in response to low flooding
*** see [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/fayoumhistory.htm by The History of the Fayoum Oasis] by Jimmy Dunn, TourEgypt.net
*** see [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/fayoumhistory.htm by The History of the Fayoum Oasis] by Jimmy Dunn, TourEgypt.net
* Aswan Dam  
==== Aswan Dam ====
** completed in 1970, built to control flooding
* completed in 1970, built to control flooding
** located at "first cataract" >> = the northernmost waterfall
* located at "first cataract" >> = the northernmost waterfall
* sources:
==== sources ====
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Nile Nile River wikipedia article]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Nile Nile River wikipedia article]
** [http://www.touregypt.net/egypt-info/magazine-mag05012001-magf4a.htm The Nile River by Marie Parsons, Touregypt.net]
* [http://www.touregypt.net/egypt-info/magazine-mag05012001-magf4a.htm The Nile River by Marie Parsons, Touregypt.net]
** [https://news.psu.edu/story/140715/2002/09/01/research/waters-nile The Waters of the Nile, PennState Online] - article about archaeological work at Hierakonpolis with information about the water table at the dig site
* [https://news.psu.edu/story/140715/2002/09/01/research/waters-nile The Waters of the Nile, PennState Online] - article about archaeological work at Hierakonpolis with information about the water table at the dig site


===Isolation===
===Isolation===
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===Regions===
===Regions===
Ancient Egypt was divided into two principal regions with smaller districts between them:
Ancient Egypt was divided into two principal geographic regions:
* Lower Egypt  
* Lower Egypt  
** = "lower" for downstream (northern portion of Egypt)
** = northern portion, consisting mostly of the Nile Delta
** = Nile Delta region
** "downstream" thus "lower"
** called by Egyptians "Ta-Mehu" for "land of papyrus"
* Upper Egypt
*** topography mostly swampy grassland
** = southern portion, from the cataracts (waterfalls) to the Nile Delta
*** fertile land
** "upstream" thus "upper"
*** Nile breaks into multiple rivers:
* see below for details on geography and history of Lower and Upper Egypt
**** Pliny the Elder (N.H. 5.11) identified seven branches (from east to west): the Pelusiac, the Tanitic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitine, and the Canopic (source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Egypt Lower Egypt] wikipedia entry)
*** flooding spread across the Delta
** consisted of 20 nomes
*** traditional capital = Memphis (located at the "funnel" point of the Delta)
*** Lower Egypt crown = "Deshret" (red crown)
* Upper Egypt  
** = "upper" for upstream (southern portion of Egypt)
** = from cataracts to the Delta
** called by Egyptians "Ta Shemau" for "the land of reeds"
** consisted of 22 nomes
*** traditional capitals = Hierakonpolis (Nekhen), Thinis, and Thebes
*** Upper Egypt crown = "Hedjet" (white crown)
* Nubia and the Kush = regions South of Egypt
* Western Desert =  arid desert with isolated oases that forms eastern portion of Libyan Desert
* Eastern Desert = arid and mountainous area that separates Nile Valley from the Red Sea
* Fayoum = large oasis just West of the Nile that was fed by the Nile during floods and with canals
* Sinai peninsula = arid land that bridges Africa and Asia to the east of the Nile Delta


===Natural Resources===
===Natural Resources===
* Nile for fishing, irrigation, movement
'''summary'''
* domesticated crops
* ancient Egypt had bountiful resources, principally
** Nile = one of the greatest agricultural regions of the ancient world
** Nile river:
** flax: for linen cloth
*** provided water and silt for agriculture
** grains, such as wheat, barley,  
*** natural plants, especially papyrus (used for paper, baskets, boats) and flax (used for textiles and ropes)
** fruits, such as figs, and melons and assorted vegetables
** desert, salt beds, and nearby mountains providing:
* great many animals living along Nile
*** salts, copper, gold (especially from Nubia to the south), limestone, sandstone
* desert = source of salt and rock
click EXPAND for details:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* Nile River provided for fishing, irrigation, movement
* silt carried by Nile replenishes the soil annually
* silt carried by Nile replenishes the soil annually
* Nile Delta = extremely productive, fertile land that required irrigation for large scale farming
* Nile Delta = extremely productive, fertile land that required irrigation for large scale farming
* papyrus: for building, boats, and paper
* Nile = one of the greatest agricultural regions of the ancient world
* limestone: abundant from mountains along Nile; soft stone can be cut with bronze tools
* core crops of ancient Egypt included:
** Good article on Limestone that can be used with students: [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/material.htm Building Materials of the Pyramids Builders]
** papyrus: for building, boats, and paper
** for literary connection see the poem, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Praise_of_Limestone "In Praise of Limestone" by W. H. Auden, 1948]) Very complicated and difficult, but it's an interesting reference, as Auden discussed limestone as being
** flax: for linen cloth and vegetable oil
* abundant minerals in mountains, especially to southeast of Egypt, including copper, gold
** grains, such as wheat and barley
* Sinai provided copper and turquoise
** fruits, such as figs, and melons and assorted vegetables
** see [http://members.multimania.nl/fredwevers/sinai.htm The land of Sinai: Location and Natural Resources]
** herbs for cooking and medicine
* Note on imported resources:
* many animals living along Nile
** Egypt lacked wood, and imported it from Lebanon and Asia Minor via the Phoenicians
* mining:
** Egypt imported other minerals, metals, dyes, and other goods from across the Mediterranean Sea region, the Middle East, Indus (India), and Nubia, Punt, and the Red Sea.
** sandstone
** limestone: abundant from mountains along Nile; soft stone can be cut with bronze tools
*** good article on Limestone that can be used with students: [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/material.htm Building Materials of the Pyramids Builders (touregypt.net)]
*** for literary connection see the poem, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Praise_of_Limestone "In Praise of Limestone" by W. H. Auden, 1948 (wiki)])  
**** complicated but interesting reference, as Auden discussed limestone as "that rock creates the only human landscape"
** abundant minerals in mountains, especially to southeast of Egypt, including copper, gold, lead
** Sinai provided copper, lead, turquoise
*** see [http://members.multimania.nl/fredwevers/sinai.htm The land of Sinai: Location and Natural Resources]
** Wadi Natrun
*** a natural depression west of the Nile Delta with desert, minerals, and salty lakes and marshes that was an important source for:
**** natron (for embalming)
**** gypsum (for plaster)
** Wadi Hammamat, desert region east of Thebes (Upper Egypt)
*** principal mining region, supplying:
**** basalts, quartz, gold, and sandstone
* '''resources that Egypt lacked and/or imported:'''
** lacked wood, and imported it from Lebanon and Asia Minor via the Phoenicians
** imported minerals, metals, gems, dyes, and other goods from across the Mediterranean Sea region, the Middle East, Indus (India), and Nubia, Punt, and the Red Sea.
* sources
* sources
** [http://www.historylink101.net/egypt_1/a-natural_resources.htm Natural Resources in Ancient Egypt]
** [http://www.historylink101.net/egypt_1/a-natural_resources.htm Natural Resources in Ancient Egypt]
**[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt Geography of Egypt] (wikipedia)
**[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt Geography of Egypt] (wikipedia)
** [http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/egypt/farming.htm farming in ancient Egypt] - useful for students
** [http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/egypt/farming.htm farming in ancient Egypt] - useful for students
</div>


==Etymology/ Word Origins==
==Etymology/ Word Origins==
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* desertification commenced approx. 5500 BC and was complete by 3400 BC
* desertification commenced approx. 5500 BC and was complete by 3400 BC


===other periods of [[Climate Change]] in Egyptian history:===
===Other periods of [[Climate Change]] in Egyptian history:===
* 2200 BC sudden cooling and drying across Mideast, North Africa, Arabia, India, and other areas (including the Americas, which showed glacial advance in Canada and the Andes)
* 2200 BC sudden cooling and drying across Mideast, North Africa, Arabia, India, and other areas (including the Americas, which showed glacial advance in Canada and the Andes)
* 2150 BC sudden low floods of Nile contributes to collapse of [[Old Kingdom]] Egypt (the Akkadian Empire collapse in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley decline are related events)
* 2150 BC sudden low floods of Nile contributes to collapse of [[Old Kingdom]] Egypt (the Akkadian Empire collapse in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley decline are related events)
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** 1206-1186 BC: droughts in Eastern Mediterranean region
** 1206-1186 BC: droughts in Eastern Mediterranean region
** 1000 BC Hekla mega volcano explosion in Iceland
** 1000 BC Hekla mega volcano explosion in Iceland
* other climate events in modern Egyptian history:
* click EXPAND for later climate events in Egyptian history:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** 967-970 AD
** 967-970 AD
*** reduced Nile flooding in 967 AD leads to famine, plague and unrest
*** reduced Nile flooding in 967 AD leads to famine, plague and unrest
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*** reduced Nile flood leads to severe famines with chaos and unrest similar to that recorded in collapse of Old Kingdom records
*** reduced Nile flood leads to severe famines with chaos and unrest similar to that recorded in collapse of Old Kingdom records
** 1783: famine across Egypt
** 1783: famine across Egypt
*** 1/6th of the population perishes
*** 1/6th of the population perished
*** caused by eruption of Iceland volcano Mt. Laki
*** caused by eruption of Iceland volcano Mt. Laki
</div>
** sources:
** sources:
*** [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml "The Fall of the Old Kingdom"] from BBC.com
*** [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml "The Fall of the Old Kingdom"] from BBC.com
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{| border="1" align="right" style="text-align:center; background-color:#E8E8E8; font-size:90%;" cellpadding="5"
{| border="1" align="right" style="text-align:center; background-color:#E8E8E8; font-size:90%;" cellpadding="5"
|+
|+
===Predynastic Egypt Timeline===
===Predynastic Egypt Timeline===
!colspan="2" | '''Stone Age to early Civilization'''
!colspan="2" | '''Stone Age to early Civilization'''
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==Upper and Lower Egypt==
==Upper and Lower Egypt overview ==
'''summary'''.
* traditionally Egypt is divided into two regions, as identified according to '''upstream''' (heading South) or '''downstream'''(heading North) along the Nile
* traditionally Egypt is divided into two regions, as identified according to '''upstream''' (heading South) or '''downstream'''(heading North) along the Nile
** within these regions are "nomes," or autonomous local districts (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)nomes] (wikipedia)
** within these regions are "nomes," or autonomous local districts
** the nomes struggled for control and gradually unified to form Upper and Lower Egypt
** the nomes struggled for control and gradually unified to form Upper and Lower Egypt
** the origins of Egyptian culture, religion, and traditions came together during this formative period
*** the origins of Egyptian culture, religion, and traditions came together during this formative period
* Upper Egypt
** during "intermediate" periods between the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms, nomarchs asserted themselves
** = upstream, i.e. to the <u>South</u>
** nomarchs were either hereditary or appointed by a pharaoh
** = from [[cataracts]] to the entrance to the [[Nile Delta]]
* see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)nomes nomes(wiki)]
** Upper Egypt is narrow with smaller flood plain
=== Upper Egypt===
** Upper Egypt is more easily unified, and hard to conquer
* = "upper" for upstream (southern portion of Egypt)
** originally divided into 22 nomes (districts)
* = from cataracts to the Delta
** original capital was Hierakonpolis ("Nekhen," Narmer's capital
* = from [[cataracts]] to the entrance to the [[Nile Delta]]
** later Thebes = central city of Upper Egypt
* called by Egyptians "Ta Shemau" for "the land of reeds"
* Lower Egypt
* Upper Egypt is narrow with smaller flood plain than Lower Egypt
** = downstream, i.e. to the <u>North</u>
* Upper Egypt is more easily unified, and harder to conquer than Lower Egypt
** = the Delta region  
* originally divided into 22 nomes (districts or regional kingdoms)
** = with Nile spreading out across large Delta, hard to control
** traditional capitals = Hierakonpolis (Nekhen), Thinis, and Thebes
** extremely fertile land with huge farm production
** Thebes = central city of Upper Egypt
** originally divided into 22 nomes (districts)
* Upper Egypt crown = "Hedjet" (white crown)
* Unification
 
** the Pharaohs represented their rule of all Egypt by combining symbols for Upper ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedjet White Crown or "Hedjet"]) and Lower egypt ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshret Red Crown or "deshret"]) into the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pschent "Double Crown" or "Pschent"]
===Lower Egypt===
* = "lower" for downstream (northern portion of Egypt)
* = Nile Delta region
* called by Egyptians "Ta-Mehu" for "land of papyrus"
* = with Nile spreading out across large Delta, easier to invade and conquer, harder to control than Upper Egypt
* topography mostly swampy grassland
* at the Delta, the Nile breaks into multiple rivers:
** Pliny the Elder (N.H. 5.11) identified seven branches (from east to west): the Pelusiac, the Tanitic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitine, and the Canopic (source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Egypt Lower Egypt] Lower Egypt (wiki))
* Nile flooding spreads across the Delta
* extremely fertile land with huge farm production
* Lower Egypt originally consisted of 20 nomes
* traditional capital = Memphis
** located at the "funnel" point of the Delta
* Lower Egypt crown = "Deshret" (red crown)
 
=== unification of Upper and Lower Egypt===
* pre-pharaonic or pre-dynastic Egypt = time of conquest as larger sections of the Nile became unified under strong leaders. 
** extensive irrigation, begun around 4,000 BC now becomes centralized and complex
** trade also motivated unification, which required agreement and standardization
* the Pharaohs represented their rule of all Egypt by combining symbols for Upper ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedjet White Crown or "Hedjet"]) and Lower Egypt ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deshret Red Crown or "deshret"]) into the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pschent "Double Crown" or "Pschent"]
** for more see also the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer_Palette "Narmer Palette"] which depicts Narmer's (also Menes?) unification of Upper and Lower Egypt approx. 3100 BC.  The palette is one of the earliest artifacts with [[hieroglyphic]] writing
** for more see also the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer_Palette "Narmer Palette"] which depicts Narmer's (also Menes?) unification of Upper and Lower Egypt approx. 3100 BC.  The palette is one of the earliest artifacts with [[hieroglyphic]] writing
** see Menes & Narmer below
** see Menes & Narmer below
** see also myth of Osiris, Isis and Set below
** see also myth of Osiris, Isis and Set below
* conquest & standardization
 
** pre-pharaonic or pre-dynastic Egypt = time of conquest as larger sections of the Nile became unified under strong leaders. 
=== Other regions ===
** extensive irrigation, begun around 4,000 BC now becomes centralized and complex
* Nubia and the Kush = regions to the south of Egypt
** trade also motivated unification, which required agreement and standardization
* western desert = arid desert with isolated oases that forms eastern portion of Libyan Desert
** standardization of Egypt starts
* eastern desert = arid and mountainous area that separates Nile Valley from the Red Sea
*** trade = common weights, measures, and rules, and brings more discourse along the Nile
* Fayoum = large oasis just West of the Nile that was fed by the Nile during floods and with canals
*** religion standardized with greater unification
* Sinai peninsula = arid land that bridges Africa and Asia to the east of the Nile Delta
**** different gods combined to be a single god with Egyptian unity
 
**** power of the priests asserted with claim to control the flooding of the Nile and standardization of gods, temples, etc.
=== standardization in and of Egypt===
* see this article [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hierakonpolis.htm Nekhen, Greek Hierakonpolis for good study of the pre-pharonic city of Nekhen]
* trade = common weights, measures, and rules, and brings more discourse along the Nile
* religion standardized with greater unification
** different gods combined to be a single god with Egyptian unity
** power of the priests asserted with claim to control the flooding of the Nile and standardization of gods, temples, etc.
* see article: [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hierakonpolis.htm Nekhen, Greek Hierakonpolis for good study of the pre-pharonic city of Nekhen]
* sources:
* sources:
** [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Nile_Delta Nile Delta]
** [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Nile_Delta Nile Delta]
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== Menes, Narmer & 1st Unification of Egypt ==
== Menes, Narmer & 1st Unification of Egypt ==


=== Menes ===
=== Menes & Narmer ===
* = mythological first king of unified Egypt  
* = mythological first king(s?) of unified Egypt  
* identified by Egyptian priest during the [[Ptolemaic]] or Greek period of Egypt in 300s BC
* identified by Egyptian priest during the [[Ptolemaic]] or Greek period of Egypt in 300s BC
* Menes was possibly just a reference to the ruler(s)
* Menes was possibly just a reference to the ruler(s)
** the name is from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho Manetho (wikipedia)], the ancient Greek historian of Egypt
** the name is from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho Manetho (wikipedia)], the ancient Greek historian of Egypt
 
* Narmer = a king referenced in archeological finds
=== Narmer ===
** likely the same as Menes
* = a king referenced in archeological finds
** associated with the god Horace
* likely the same as Menes
* associated with the god Horace
* we will refer to "Menes" as the same as "Narmer" hereout:
* we will refer to "Menes" as the same as "Narmer" hereout:
* Unified Egypt
click on EXPAND for more on Narmer & Menes as first rule of unified Egypt
** Menes = [[Upper Egypt]] king
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** unified through conquest
* unified through conquest
** first capital = Memphis, near the junction of Upper and Lower Egypt
* first capital = Memphis, near the junction of Upper and Lower Egypt
*** unclear if Menes or one of his successors actually created Memphis
** unclear if Menes or one of his successors actually created Memphis
*** Memphis = important to control movement along the Nile
** Memphis = important to control movement along the Nile
*** myth of Menes that he was attacked by his own dogs while hunting  
** myth of Menes that he was attacked by his own dogs while hunting  
**** he escaped by riding the back of a crocodile across Lake Moeris (a water body of the Fayoum oasis where pharaohs liked to hunt)
*** he escaped by riding the back of a crocodile across Lake Moeris (a water body of the Fayoum oasis where pharaohs liked to hunt)
**** this myth may be seen as an allegory for conquest/ unification of Egypt (attacked by his own dogs = enemies from within Egypt; crocodile = his power and chosen by the gods)
*** this myth may be seen as an allegory for conquest/ unification of Egypt (attacked by his own dogs = enemies from within Egypt; crocodile = his power and chosen by the gods)
*** Menes was supposed to have been killed by a hippopotamus
*** Menes was supposed to have been killed by a hippopotamus
* Sources:
* Sources:
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menes Menes] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer Narmer] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menes Menes] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer Narmer] (wikipedia)
 
[[File:Egypt_AbydosKinglistDrawing_wiki_sm.jpg|right|frame|Abydos King List with 76 pharaohs as found on the walls of the Temple of Seti, a New Kingdom pharaoh.  The list in incomplete and has certain pharaohs, such as Hatshepsut deliberately missing (wikipedia)]]
[[File:Egypt_AbydosKinglistDrawing_wiki_sm.jpg|right|frame|Abydos King List with 76 pharaohs as found on the walls of the Temple of Seti, a New Kingdom pharaoh.  The list in incomplete and has certain pharaohs, such as Hatsepsut deliberately missing(wikipedia)]]
</div>


==Pharaoh & Dynastic Periods==
==Pharaoh & Dynastic Periods==
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* New Kingdom
* New Kingdom
** intermediate period (disruption, unclear rule between kingdoms)
** intermediate period (disruption, unclear rule between kingdoms)
 
=== Transition of power between Dynasties & Kingdoms ===
 
'''summary'''.
* Old, Middle and New Kingdoms represent a united Egypt
** thus the Kingdoms have more stability
* intermediate periods represent a divided Egypt
** thus the intermediate periods are more chaotic
click EXPAND for causes of dynastic change
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* causes of Dynastic change
** weak leadership, pharaonic personality
** internal family power struggles
** corruption
** rise of local leadership to challenge central rule
** power grab by vizier << or priests?  >> find examples
** degree of crises
*** crises change dynasties
**** not as severe or of a more manageable nature
*** critical mass crises that end end the Kingdoms
**** are severe and unmanageable
*** types of crises
**** climate and/or monsoon season changes leading to Nile flooding irregularity and/or drought
**** volcanic-induced climate change (see Thera explosion)
**** plague
**** external threats / invasion
* consequence of collapse of dynasties
** interruption of projects
* consequence of collapse of Kingdoms
** rise of nomarchs
** regional competition
</div>
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==Pharaonic Egypt Timeline==
==Pharaonic Egypt Timeline==
!colspan="2" | '''"Kingdoms" or "Dynastic" Period'''
!colspan="2" | '''"Kingdoms" or "Dynastic" Period'''
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==Old Kingdom==
==Old Kingdom==
[[File:Abhandlungen der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften aus dem Jahre (1902) (16765759871).jpg|thumb|The Palermo Stone, the fragment of the Egyptian Royal Annals housed in Palermo, Italy.]]
* consist of the 3rd through 6th "dynasties"
* consist of the 3rd through 6th "dynasties"
* distinguished from Archaic period by large-scale, centrally-controlled building projects
* distinguished from Archaic period by large-scale, centrally-controlled building projects
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** capital at Memphis
** capital at Memphis
** complex bureaucracy organized with [[vizier]] at head of government under pharaoh
** complex bureaucracy organized with [[vizier]] at head of government under pharaoh
*** see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imhotep Imhotep (wikipedia) for strong, genius vizier under Djoser (3rd  dynasty)
* '''Palermo stone'''
** named for Palermo, Italy, where it resides
** from an Old Kingdom stone, or "stele" (a stone with writing engraved on it)
*** which lists Old Kingdom and pre-Old Kingdom dynasties and kings
*** various "fragments" exist and are stored at different museums
*** known collectively as the "Cairo Annals Stone"
** the Palermo Stone lists mythological origin kings of Egypt and early Old Kingdom kings and dynasties
*** it serves as a unique contemporaneous (from that time) historical evidence of the pre-dynastic and Old Kingdom Egypt
* other historical sources include:
** Manetho's chronology: c. 300 BC Greek or Egyptian priest who recorded a list, or "Annals", of Egyptian kings
** Royal Tablet of Karnack: lists Old Kingdom to 18th Dynasty
** Royal Tablet of Sakara: lists 58 kings from "Meibis" to Ramses the Great
** Royal List of Abydos: from the Temple of Sethos
*** shows Ramses II and Sethos I paying homage to their ancestors
*** and lists 76 names of prior kings
*** the list does not give dates but creates a reference of names
** other sources are from individual engravings, steles, temples, etc. that list kings, dynasties, events, and years between them
*** << to move this to its own section
*** from "Gods, Graves and Scholars", p. 123-124
* see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imhotep Imhotep (wikipedia) for strong, genius vizier under Djoser (3rd  dynasty)


===Pharaoh as supreme leader===
===Pharaoh as supreme leader===
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===Pharaohs===
===Pharaohs===
* Mentuhopetp II
[[File:StatueOfSesotrisIII-EA684-BritishMuseum-August19-08.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Statue Of Senusret III; his statues are unique as they show somber expressions and weariness, perhaps to depict the weight of responsibilities upon him]]
** Upper Egypt king conquers Lower Egypt and reunites Egypt
* Mentuhotep II, ruled 2061-2010 BC (approx)
** we Upper Egypt king who conquered Lower Egypt and reunited Egypt
** started the 11th Dynasty
* extensive irrigation projects
* extensive irrigation projects
* economic revival
* economic revival
* pharaohs don't have same power as Old Kingdom pharaohs: regional leaders still strong
* pharaohs don't have same power as Old Kingdom pharaohs: regional leaders still strong
* Amenemhet I  
* Amenemhet I, ruled 1991–1962 BC
** possibly was the vizier to the last 11th Dynasty king, Mentuhotep IV
** seized power and started the 12th dynasty, the most prominent of Middle Kingdom dynasties
** land reclamation and irrigation projects
** land reclamation and irrigation projects
** return to normal flooding patterns
** return to normal flooding patterns under 12th dynasty
** economic recovery under him and successor pharaohs
** economic recovery under him and successor pharaohs
** see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemhat Instructions of Amenemhat] papyrus with poem on advice from father to son on ruling
** see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemhat Instructions of Amenemhat] papyrus with poem on advice from father to son on ruling
** see also [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm The Instruction of Merikare]
** see also [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm The Instruction of Merikare]
* end of Middle Kingdom
* Senusret III, ruled 1878-1839 BC
** possible droughts and crop failures contributed to decline
** probably the most powerful Middle Kingdom ruler
*** droughts related to Greek volcano at Thera (Santorini), which caused/accelerated (?) sudden climate change associated with decline of Minoan Crete and Eurasian migrations (including Indo-Aryan) and migrations in Middle East, including that of the Hebrews & Caananites
** fully consolidated central rule over regional nomarchs
** 12th dynasty declined and had succession problems
** led military expeditions, including to Nubia and into the Levant
** series of unrelated rulers (power exchanged, fought over)
click EXPAND for more
** Hyksos invasion -- migration, settlement (conquest?) of Nile Delta leads to collapse of 13th dynasty and the Middle Kingdom
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* to support expansion into Nubia, he built a navigable canal around the first cataract and numerous forts
* he bragged of his conquest of Canaan and ordered his successors to maintain the new borders:
<pre>Year 16, third month of winter: the king made his southern boundary at Heh. I have made my boundary further south than my fathers. I have added to what was bequeathed me. .... As for any son of mine who shall maintain this border which my Majesty has made, he is my son born to my Majesty. The true son is he who champions his father, who guards the border of his begetter. But he [who] abandons it, who fails to fight for it, he is not my son, he was not born to me. Now my majesty has had an image made of my majesty, at this border which my majesty has made, in order that you maintain it, in order that you fight for it.</pre>
* carried on irrigation projects, including to start a canal to connect the Nile to the Fayum Depression (or Fayyum; see entry here)
* through wealth and trade from conquests, urbanization increased under Senusret III
</div>
* Amenemhet III, ruled 1860-1814 BC
** maintained but did not expand the empire
** sent expeditions for trade and mining to the eastern desert and to Punt (southwestern coast of the Red Sea)
** continued work on the "Mer-Wer" (Great Canal) canal
*** about 10 miles long and 1 mile wide
*** connected the Nile to the Fayum Depression and fed Lake Moeris
*** the project was completed by his son Amenemhat IV
[[File:Statue of Sobekneferu (Berlin Egyptian Museum 14475).jpg|right|250px|thumb|Statue of Sobekneferu, first female Pharaoh of Egypt]]
* Sobekneferu, ruled 1806-1802 BC
** first fully confirmed Egyptian female pharaoh
click EXPAND for more
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* daughter of Amenemhet III and possibly sister of Amenemhat IV
* Amenemhat IV had no heir
** her older sister, Neferuptah, was likely heir to Amenemhat IV (as she had a pyramid), but she died young
** so Sobekneferu assumed power upon Amenemhat IV's death
* Sobekneferu died after ruling four years
** she had no heirs and her rule marked the end of the 12th dynasty
</div>
* 13th Dynasty followed Sobekneferu
** lasted 154 years (1803-154 BC)
** was likely result of challenge to Sobekneferu
** marked by weakening of central rule and separation of the Delta region
*** 14th Dynasty was likely Canaanite rulers
*** ruled the Delta concurrently with part of the 13th Dynasty
** the 13th & 14th Dynasties are generally considered the last of the Middle Kingdom
*** but they may also be seen as beginning of the Second Intermediate Period
=== end of Middle Kingdom ===
* possible droughts and crop failures contributed to decline
** droughts related to Greek volcano at Thera (Santorini), which caused/accelerated (?) sudden climate change associated with decline of Minoan Crete and Eurasian migrations (including Indo-Aryan) and migrations in Middle East, including that of the Hebrews & Caananites
* 12th dynasty declined and had succession problems
* followed by unrelated rulers (13th & 14th dynasties; power exchanged, fought over)
** Hyksos invasion -- migration, settlement (conquest?) of Nile Delta leads to final collapse of 13th dynasty and the Middle Kingdom
* Thera explosion is documented in the "Tempest Stele" (tempest means "storm"; "stele" is an upright stone monument))
** erected by the first New Kingdom Pharaoh, Amhose I, in 1550
** describes storms, dark skies, and damage to temples
** Amhose I claimed that he repaired the damage


===Hyksos invasion===
== Hyksos invasion ==
'''Summary'''
* Hyksos period = 1678-1570 BC
* Hyksos period = 1678-1570 BC
* Middle Kingdom rulers previously concerned with invasions and built defensive walls along the eastern border of the Delta (see [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/fortifications_2.htm "Wall of the Prince"])
* Hyksos conquered Lower Egypt (Nile Delta region)
* Hyksos rule considered Fifteenth and Sixteenth dynasties that ruled Lower Egypt (Nile Delta)
* Hyksos rule considered Fifteenth and Sixteenth dynasties that ruled Lower Egypt only
* Hyksos capital at Avaras, in Northeast section of the Delta
[[File:Painting of foreign delegation in the tomb of Khnumhotep II circa 1900 BCE (Detail mentioning "Abisha the Hyksos" in hieroglyphs).jpg||right|350px|thumb|A man described as "Abisha the Hyksos"
* called "Asiatics" by the Egyptians (became general term for migrants from Middle East, including Hebrews)
(𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣswt, Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"), leading a group of Aamu. Tomb of Khnumhotep II (circa 1900 BC).This is one of the earliest known uses of the term "Hyksos".(wiki)]]
* Hyksos capital was at Avaras, in Northeast section of the Delta
* background:
** Middle Kingdom rulers were previously concerned with invasions and built defensive walls along the eastern border of the Delta (see  
** therefore, invasions or excursions were an ongoing concern prior to Hyksos conquest of Lower Egypt
*** see: [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/fortifications_2.htm "Wall of the Prince" Wall of the Prince (reshaf.org)]
* Hyksos invasion possibly result of:
** food supply pressures in Middle East promote migration
** Middle Kingdom central control weaker than Old Kingdom
** Egypt further weakened by climate change and increasing migration
* "Asiatic" migration was gradual and eventually led to military conquest -- not a sudden invasion
* Delta region conquered by Hyksos was less unified than Upper Egypt which Egyptians were better able to defend
* impact:
** invasion/migration period = Egypt no longer culturally and technologically isolated
** Hyksos episode changes Egypt culturally and leads to Egyptian New Kingdom expansion and empire
** Egyptians adopt Hyksos war technologies, especially bows & arrows and chariots
click EXPAND for details:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* Hyksos were called "Asiatics" by the Egyptians (became general term for migrants from Middle East, including Hebrews)
* "Hyksos" comes from the Egyptian, "heka khasewet," for "rulers of foreign lands"
* "Hyksos" comes from the Egyptian, "heka khasewet," for "rulers of foreign lands"
* Hyksos ruled Lower Egypt over a mixed population of Egyptians and Middle Easterners ("proto-syrians")
* Hyksos ruled Lower Egypt over a mixed population of Egyptians and Middle Easterners ("proto-syrians")
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*** told by the ancient historian Manetho
*** told by the ancient historian Manetho
*** armed, barbaric invasion
*** armed, barbaric invasion
*** used technologies Egypt didn't have: composite bows, horses and chariots, and metal body armor
[[File:Chariot of Tutankhamun.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The two-wheeled horse chariot, here found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, may have been introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos.(wiki)]]
*** Hyksos employed technologies Egypt didn't have: composite bows, horses and chariots, and metal body armor
*** note here about Egypt:  
*** note here about Egypt:  
**** Egyptian isolation meant that Egypt was immune from Middle Eastern warfare and its technologies;  
**** Egyptian isolation meant that Egypt was immune from Middle Eastern warfare and its technologies;  
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** Hyksos culture absorbed into stronger Egyptian culture: language, religion (take on Seth as primary god)
** Hyksos culture absorbed into stronger Egyptian culture: language, religion (take on Seth as primary god)
** Hyksos rule becomes Egyptian
** Hyksos rule becomes Egyptian
** Hyksos absorbed into Egyptian culture, but Egypt now culturally connected to and influenced by Levant peoples (Middle East)
** Hyksos absorbed into Egyptian culture, but Egypt now culturally connected to and influenced by Levant peoples (eastern coast of Mediterranean Sea)
* '''Summary'''
** Hyksos conquest result of:
*** food supply pressures in Middle East promote migration
*** Middle Kingdom central control weaker than Old Kingdom
*** Egypt further weakened by climate change and increasing migration
** "Asiatic" migration was gradual and eventually led to military conquest -- not a sudden invasion
** Delta region conquered by Hyksos was less unified than Upper Egypt which Egyptians were better able to defend
** invasion/migration period = Egypt no longer culturally and technologically isolated
** Hyksos episode changes Egypt culturally and leads to Egyptian New Kingdom expansion and empire
* primary source references:
* primary source references:
** see [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm The Instruction of Merikare] for primary source indiciation of "Asiatic" invasions and settlements in Lower Egypt
** see [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/merikare_papyrus.htm The Instruction of Merikare] for primary source indiciation of "Asiatic" invasions and settlements in Lower Egypt
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** [http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=1550.0 Hyksos, Kings of Egypt and the land of Edom] website publication of 1961 book; this source takes a biblical perspective and may be ahistocial to that extent
** [http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=1550.0 Hyksos, Kings of Egypt and the land of Edom] website publication of 1961 book; this source takes a biblical perspective and may be ahistocial to that extent
** [http://www.aldokkan.com/egypt/hyksos.htm The Hyksos: comparison between Hyksos and Vandals] - the comparison is more useful for information about the Hyksos; potentially useful for World History students
** [http://www.aldokkan.com/egypt/hyksos.htm The Hyksos: comparison between Hyksos and Vandals] - the comparison is more useful for information about the Hyksos; potentially useful for World History students
</div>


===Second Intermediate Period===
===Second Intermediate Period===
* 1674 - 1549 BC (sometimes 1535 BC)
* 1674 - 1549 BC (sometimes 1535 BC)
* period between final collapse of Middle Kingdom 14th dynasty and rise of New Kingdom 18th Dynasty
* period between final collapse of Middle Kingdom 13th & 14th dynasties and rise of New Kingdom 18th Dynasty
* 15th, 16th, & 17th dynasties
* 15th, 16th, & 17th dynasties
** 15th & 16th dynasties = Hyksos rule of Lower Egypt
** 15th Dynasty = Hyksos rule of Lower Egypt
** 17th dynasty = Upper Egypt rulers coinciding with Hyksos rule of Lower Egypt
** 16th & 17th dynasties = Upper Egypt rulers coinciding with Hyksos rule of Lower Egypt
*** Kamose, last king of 17th dynasty invaded Lower Egypt but failed to fully defeat the Hyksos  
*** Kamose, last king of 17th dynasty invaded Lower Egypt but failed to fully defeat the Hyksos  
* Second Intermediate Period ends with rise of Amhose I and the 18th dynasty in 1549 BC (sometimes 1550)
* Second Intermediate Period ends with rise of Ahmose I, ruler of Thebes, and the 18th dynasty in 1549 BC (sometimes 1550)
* Hyksos fully expelled by Amhose I in 1532 BC at
* Hyksos fully expelled by Ahmose I in 1532 BC at the Hyksos Delta region capital, Avaris
** from the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhind_mathematical_papyrus Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (wiki)]], Amhose I claims:
<pre>Then there was fighting Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. ... Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there.</pre>
[[File:Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos (axe of Ahmose I, from the Treasure of Queen Aahhotep II) Colorized per source.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a probable Hyksos]]


==New Kingdom==
==New Kingdom==
[[File:Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png|right|250px|thumb|A relief of Ramses II from Memphis showing him capturing enemies: a Nubian, a Libyan and a Syrian, c. 1250 BC. Cairo Museum.(wiki)]]
'''summary'''
* 1550 BC - 1069 BC (approx)
* 1550 BC - 1069 BC (approx)
* period of strong pharaohs and Egyptian foreign conquest
* period of strong pharaohs and Egyptian foreign conquest
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** individual wealth = democratization of pharaonic privilege such as tombs, mummification, etc.
** individual wealth = democratization of pharaonic privilege such as tombs, mummification, etc.
** individual connections through trade with foreign lands
** individual connections through trade with foreign lands
==New Kingdom pharaohs ==
* the below is not complete, focusing on important persons and events


===Amhose I===
===Amhose I===
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=== Amenhotep I ===
=== Amenhotep I ===
* Amenhtotep means " "Amun is Satisfied"
* Amenhotep means " "Amun is Satisfied"
* oversaw expansion of Egypt
click EXPAND for inscription in which Amenhotep bragged:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>"And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to Amun or Sobek, or Maat and Sekhmet, whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions (bulkheads) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with bronze in the fifth finger (3.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6.5 knots)... </pre>
* From the tomb of Amenhotep I (KV39).
** Source: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technologyAncient Egyptian technology (wikipedia)]]
</div>
 
=== Thutmose II ===
* ruled 1493-1479 BC
* son of Thutmose I and a minor wife
** to secure power married his more-fully royal half-sister, Hatshepsut
click EXPAND for details:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* significant events during his reign include campaigns in Nubia and the Levant (eastern coast of the Mediterranean)
** the Kush kingdom rebelled upon Thutmose II's ascension as pharaoh
*** Kush rulers tested Egyptian hold during transitions of power
*** Thutmose II did fight in Nubia
*** he may have led an expedition to Syria
** Hatshepsut may have been acting as a co-ruler
** historians dispute the length of Thutmose II's rule as either 14, 13, 10, or 3 years
* it is possible that Thutmose II was the "[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh_of_the_Exodus Pharaoh of the Exodus"]] (from the Jewish bible)
** evidence for it:
*** his reign ended abruptly, leaving a two-year old heir
*** cysts on his mummified body indicate possible plague
* see [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_II Thutmose II (wiki)]]
</div>
 


===Hatshepsut===
===Hatshepsut===
>> here for notes on [[Hatshepsut notes to do]]
[[File:Seated Statue of Hatshepsut MET Hatshepsut2012.jpg|thumb|Statue of Hatshepsut on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art|alt=Statue of Hatshepsut on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
* 1508–1458 BC; ruled from 1479 - 1458 BC
* 1508–1458 BC; ruled from 1479-1458 BC
* ruled as regent for Amenhotep's two-year old son, Thutmose III
* declared herself pharaoh and exercised full powers of pharaoh
** one of two Egyptian female pharaohs (with Sobekneferu of the Middle Kingdom)
* major accomplishments include expansion of trade networks & extensive construction projects
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* rule:
* rule:
** daughter of Thutmose I who had no male heirs (giving her strong dynastic legitimacy)
** daughter of Thutmose I who had no male heirs (giving her strong dynastic legitimacy)
** married half-brother Thutmose II
** married half-brother, Thutmose II
** inherited rule from Thutmose II who died while her stepson was too young to rule (later Thutmose III)
** inherited rule from Thutmose II who died while her stepson was too young to rule (later Thutmose III)
** Hatshepsut started as regent, then took on rule as co-regent with Thutmose III as he grew up, and then she exercised full power as pharaoh herself until her death
** Thutmose III's mother was another wife of Thutmose II, Isit
*** Hatshepsut had only one child, a daughter, Neferure
** Hatshepsut started as sole regent for Thutmose III as he grew up
*** that she ruled as regent indicates that she exercised power during Thutmose II's reign, or at least at the end of it
*** as Thutmose III grew up, she ruled as co-regent with him
*** she then declared herself pharaoh
*** she claimed to have been the legitimate successor of her father, Thutmose I
*** from her burial temple, inscribed was Thutmose I's command:
<pre> "This daughter of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut—may she live!—I have appointed as my successor upon my throne... she shall direct the people in every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves at her command."</pre>
** Hatshepsut then exercised full power as pharaoh herself until her death
** Vizier = Senenmut, possibly from rule of Thutmose I, certainly inherited from Thutmose II
** Vizier = Senenmut, possibly from rule of Thutmose I, certainly inherited from Thutmose II
* female pharaoh
* as female pharaoh:
** wore pharaoh formal attire including the false beard for official events
** wore pharaoh formal attire including the false beard for official events
** she was depicted in her time both in female and pharaonic dress
** she was depicted in her time both in female and pharaonic dress
** she named herself "Maatkare" ("truth is the soul of the sun god")
*** the name reinforced her legitimacy as representative of the god Amun
*** Amun's proclamation of her rule was inscribed on a monument:
<pre>Welcome my sweet daughter, my favorite, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou art the Pharaoh, taking possession of the Two Lands.</pre>
[[File:Hatshetsup-temple-1by7.jpg|thumb|partially reconstructed limestone temple]]
* accomplishments:
* accomplishments:
** Hatshepsut focused on economic expansion of Egyptian trade networks
** Hatshepsut focused on economic expansion of Egyptian trade networks
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** sponsored massive building projects, including temples, obelisks, and statues
** sponsored massive building projects, including temples, obelisks, and statues
*** she ordered built the tallest surviving obelisk at Karnak (one of two placed at the temple entrance)
*** she ordered built the tallest surviving obelisk at Karnak (one of two placed at the temple entrance)
* Erasure of Hatshepsut's legacy
* inscription from her tomb at Deir el-Bahari
<pre>Hear ye, all persons! Ye people as many as ye are! I have done things according to the design of my heart. … I have restored that which was in ruins, I have raised up that which was unfinished since the Asiatics were in the midst of the Northland, and the barbarians were in the midst of them, overthrowing that which was made, while they ruled in ignorance of Re. He did not do according to the divine command until my majesty. When I was firm upon the throne of Re, I was ennobled until the two periods of years...I came as Hor-watit flaming against my enemies.</pre>
** source: [https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Hatshepsut Hatshepsut (wikiquote, citing James Henry Breasted, 1906)]
* erasure of Hatshepsut's legacy
** her stepson, Thutmose III and his son defaced and destroyed his step-mother's legacy by destroying her monuments and temples, defacing inscriptions and otherwise removing reference to her in his own inscriptions
** her stepson, Thutmose III and his son defaced and destroyed his step-mother's legacy by destroying her monuments and temples, defacing inscriptions and otherwise removing reference to her in his own inscriptions
** however, erasure was incomplete and focused only on the most public displays
** however, erasure was incomplete and focused only on the most public displays
** motives are unclear. Theories include:  
** motives are unclear. Theories include:  
*** erasure occurred near end of Thutmose's life, indicating that it was more engineered by his son (he could have done it years earlier but chose not to)
*** erasure occurred near end of Thutmose's life, indicating that it was more engineered by his son (he could have done it years earlier but chose not to)
*** Thutmose's son, Amenhotep II, was worried about the integrity of his royal lineage, and targeted Hatsepshut to defame her to enhance his own lineage
*** Thutmose's son, Amenhotep II, was worried about the integrity of his royal lineage, and targeted Hatshepshut to defame her to enhance his own lineage
*** Thutmose resented being co-regent with Hatshepsut for so long and wanted to downgrade her legacy accordingly
*** Thutmose resented being co-regent with Hatshepsut for so long and wanted to downgrade her legacy accordingly
*** Thutmose's entourage wanted to elevate their own importance over those who served Hatshepsut
*** Thutmose's entourage wanted to elevate their own importance over those who served Hatshepsut
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** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsut Hatshepsut] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsut Hatshepsut] (wikipedia)
** http://discovermagazine.com/2011/jun/02-egypts-lost-fleet-its-been-found Egypt's Lost Fleet—It's Been Found Discover Magazine (article requires account for full access)
** http://discovermagazine.com/2011/jun/02-egypts-lost-fleet-its-been-found Egypt's Lost Fleet—It's Been Found Discover Magazine (article requires account for full access)
 
* teaching resources:
[[File:Egypt_NewKingdom_Egypt_1450_BC_sm.jpg|right|frame|Greatest extent of Egyptian empire under Thutmose III (wikipedia)]]
** 4:52 min video: [https://www.pbs.org/video/to-the-contrary-womens-history-month-hatshepsut/ "The Female Pharaoh" from PBS.org "Women's History Month"]
</div>


===Thutmose III===
===Thutmose III===
[[File:Egypt_NewKingdom_Egypt_1450_BC_sm.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Greatest extent of Egyptian empire under Thutmose III (wikipedia)]]
* reign: 1479 BC to 1425 BC
* reign: 1479 BC to 1425 BC
* son of a secondary wife of Thutmoese II, stepson and co-regent of Hatshepsut
* son of a secondary wife of Thutmoese II, stepson and co-regent of Hatshepsut
** considered the "Napoleon of Egypt"
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* Thutmose died when Thutmose III was young
* Thutmose died when Thutmose III was young
** Hatshephut, the primary wife of Thutmose II ruled on his behalf as "regent
** Hatshephut, the primary wife of Thutmose II ruled on his behalf as "regent
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* military genius
* military genius
** given control of Egyptian armies by Hatshepsut
** given control of Egyptian armies by Hatshepsut
* conquests
* conquests:
** conquered 350 cities in 17 military campaigns
** conquered 350 cities in 17 military campaigns
** built largest ever ancient Egyptian army
** built largest-ever ancient Egyptian army
** considered the "Napoleon of Egypt"
** expanded Egyptian empire across Syria as far as the Euphrates River
** expanded Egyptian empire across Syria as far as the Euphrates River
** conquered southward as far as Sudan
** conquered southward as far as Sudan
** inscribed historically accurate accounts of his campaigns at Karnak Temples of Amun
** inscribed historically accurate accounts of his campaigns at Karnak Temples of Amun
*** click EXPAND for excerpt on the Battle of Megiddo:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>His majesty set forth in a chariot of fine gold, adorned with his accoutrements of combat, like Horus, the Mighty of Arm, a lord of action like Montu, the Theban, while his father Amun made strong his arms. The southern wing of his majesty's army was at a hill south of the Qina brook and the northern wing was to the northwest of Megiddo, while his majesty was in their center. Amun being the protection of his person in the melee and the strength of Set pervading his members.
Thereupon his majesty prevailed over them at the head of his army. Then they [the enemy] saw his majesty prevailing over them, and they fled headlong to Megiddo with faces of fear. They abandoned their horses and their chariots of gold and silver so that someone might draw them up into this town by hoisting on their garments. Now, the people had shut this town against them but they let down garments to hoist them up into this town. Now, if only his majesty's army had not given up their hearts to capturing the possessions of the enemy, they would have captured Megiddo at this time, while the wretched enemy of Kadesh and the wretched enemy of this town were being dragged up hastily to get them into their town, for fear of his majesty entered their bodies and their arms were weak for his serpent-diadem had overpowered them.
* source: [https://www.ancient.eu/article/1102/thutmose-iiis-battle-of-megiddo-inscription/ Thutmose III's Battle of Megiddo Inscription (ancient.eu)]
</pre>
</div>
* Sources:
* Sources:
** [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/594493/Thutmose-III Thutmose III from Britannica]
** [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/594493/Thutmose-III Thutmose III from Britannica]
 
</div>
=== Amenhotep II ===
=== Amenhotep II ===
* son of Thutmose III
* son of Thutmose III
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** crowned while still a child, ruled by a regent until age 13
** crowned while still a child, ruled by a regent until age 13
* known as "Amenhotep the Magnificent
* known as "Amenhotep the Magnificent
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* son of Thutmose IV
* son of Thutmose IV
* period of prosperity and peace
* period of prosperity and peace
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*** famously rejected Babylonian king's request to marry one of his daughters
*** famously rejected Babylonian king's request to marry one of his daughters
**** "From time immemorial, no daughter of the king of Egypt is given to anyone"
**** "From time immemorial, no daughter of the king of Egypt is given to anyone"
</div>


===Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV)===
===Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) & Nefertiti ===
[[File:La_salle_dAkhenaton_(1356-1340_av_J.C.)_(Musée_du_Caire)_(2076972086).jpg|right|250px|thumb|Pharaoh Akhenaten (center) and his family worshiping the Aten, with characteristic rays seen emanating from the solar disk. Later such imagery was prohibited.]]
* reign: 1353 – 1336 BC
* reign: 1353 – 1336 BC
* also spelled Akhenaton
** son of Amenhotep III
** son of Amenhotep III
** great-grandson of Thutmose III
** great-grandson of Thutmose III
** wife = Nefertiti
** his queen =Nefertiti  
>> add more about Nerfertiti
* attempted monotheistic religion based on one god, Aten, a sun god, represented by a "sun disk"
* attempted monotheistic religion based on one god, Aten, a sun god, represented by a "sun disk"
** changed his name to "Akhenaton" or "he who worships Aten" or "Living Spirit of Aten"
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** in 5th year of rule, changed his name from Amenhotep IV to "Akhenaten" or "he who worships Aten" or "Living Spirit of Aten"
* he defunded temples to Amun (or Amon), which was his principal target
* priests and ruling classes did not accept his changes
* priests and ruling classes did not accept his changes
* in response, he constructed a new capital on the East bank of the Nile, dedicated to Aten
* in response, he constructed a new capital on the East bank of the Nile, dedicated to Aten
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* legacy
* legacy
** Syria lost to Hittites during his reign
** Syria lost to Hittites during his reign
** later pharaohs and the Egyptian establishment erased Akhenaton's legacy and his capital was abandoned
** later pharaohs and the Egyptian establishment erased Akhenaten's legacy and his capital was abandoned
** some scholars find a connection between Akhenaton's monotheism and Judaism, with Akhenaton a precedent to Hebrew monotheism
** some scholars find a connection between Akhenaten's monotheism and Judaism, with Akhenaten a precedent to Hebrew monotheism
** the story of Akhenaten demonstrates both the power and limits of power of the pharaohs
** the story of Akhenaten demonstrates both the extent and limits of power of the pharaohs
* sources:
* sources:
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IV Amenhotep IV] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_IV Amenhotep IV] (wikipedia)
** [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mwsly Akhenaen] BBC
** [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mwsly Akhenaen] BBC
** [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7209472.stm Grim Secrets of Pharaoh's City] -- describes dismal conditions of workers who buil Akhenaten's city  -- good article for students!
** [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7209472.stm Grim Secrets of Pharaoh's City] -- describes dismal conditions of workers who built Akhenaten's city  -- good article for students!
** [http://www.famoushistoricalevents.net/belief-akhenaten/ Belief Of Akhenaten]
** [http://www.famoushistoricalevents.net/belief-akhenaten/ Belief Of Akhenaten]
</div>
''' Nefertiti '''
* wife & queen to Akhenaten
** her name translates to "The Beautiful Woman has Come"
* likely served as co-regent with Akhenaten during his last year and possibly as pharaoh outright
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
[[File:Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Nefertiti bust, perhaps the most famous depiction of an ancient Egyptian ]]
* family lineage disputed, most likely:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
click EXPAND for more
** father = likely, Ay, advisor to Amenhotep III and Tutankhamun
** mother ? perhaps Tey, wife of Ay, but only reference to her is as "nurse" to Nefertiti
*** a theory is that an earlier wife, "luy" and Tey was Nefertiti's stepmother
** sibling theories:
*** that Akhenaten and Nefertiti were full siblings is based on depictions of them as the sibling gods, Shu and Tefnut
*** that her name, "The Beautiful Woman has Come," suggests she was born of a foreign mother
**** Amenhotep III had a Mittani (mideastern) wife, Tadukhipa
**** so it is supposed that she was Nefertiti's mother and thus half-brother to Akhenaten
</div>
* title as Egyptian queen = "Great Royal Wife"
* theories of her rule as co-ruler and/or pharaoh:
** that Nefertiti influenced Akhenaten to worship Aten (the sun god)
** depictions of Akhenaten and Nefertiti show them in equal proportions
** depictions show Nefertiti leading ceremonies and receiving diplomats
* co-regent:
** she may have ruled as co-regent with Akhenaten the year before his death
*** if so, it suggests that he knew he was dying, perhaps of a plague
** a brief successor king to Akhenaten was named Neferneferuaten
*** some believe this was Nefertiti
**** thus naming her "Neferneferuaten Nefertiti"
**** the suffix "aten" = same as "Akhen-aten", for the god "Aten"
** there is little evidence for the succession of Akhenaten
*** much evidence of his rule was erased by his successors
''' the Hittite letters'''
* letter from an Egyptian queen to Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite ruler at Hattusa, the Hittite capital
** the letter reads
<pre>
My husband has died and I have no son. They say about you that you have many sons. You might give me one of your sons to become my husband. I would not wish to take one of my subjects as a husband... I am afraid.</pre>
* Suppiluliuma supposedly replied:
<pre>Nothing like this has happened to me in my entire life!</pre>
** possible authors of the letter are Nerfertiti, her daughter, Meritaten, or Ankhesenamun, wife of Tutankhamun
* see [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti#Hittite_letters Hittite Letters (wiki)]]
* sources:
** [[https://www.ancient.eu/Nefertiti/ Nefertiti (ancient.eu)]]
** https://www.arce.org/resource/akhenaten-nefertiti-aten-many-gods-one Akhenaten, Nefertiti & Aten: From Many Gods to One (arce.org)]]
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti Nefertiti (wiki)]]
** [[https://www.smb.museum/en/museums-institutions/aegyptisches-museum-und-papyrussammlung/collection-research/bust-of-nefertiti/the-queen/ The Bust of Nefertiti (Berlin Museum - which owns the bust of Nefertiti)]]
** [[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/150814-nefertiti-tomb-tutankhamun-tut-archaeology-egypt-dna Desperately Seeking Queen Nefertiti (National Geographic)]]
</div>
'''succession of Akhenaten'''
* there seem to be two pharaohs between Akhenaten and his son Tutankhamun
click EXPAND for more:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** the order is a guess and could be in reverse
** evidence is uncertain; if so:
* Smenkhkare
** possibly co-regent with Akhenaten (before Nefertiti's co-regency)
** it is only speculation that Smenkhkare served as actual pharaoh
*** portions of "wine dockets" (containers) mention "Regnal Year 1" or years 2-3 from the "house of Smenkhkare"
* see [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smenkhkare Smenkhkare (wiki)]]
* Neferneferuaten
** thought to be Nefertiti
** this pharaoh is thought to have moved the royal capital back to Thebes, thus ending the cult of Aten
* possibly, these were regents to Tutankhamun and not outright pharaohs
** "cartouches," a hieroglyph representing royalty, depict Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten
*** but that is not evidence enough of their ascension to pharaoh
</div>


===Tutankhamun===
===Tutankhamun===
* reign: 1333-1323 BC
* reign: 1333-1323 BC
* son or grandson of Akhenaten (unclear)
* son of Akhenaten  
* minor pharaoh who assumed rule at young age and died at age 18
* minor pharaoh who assumed rule at young age and died at age 18
** speculation that his death was murder = incorrect
* famous mostly for the fact that his tomb and mummy were found intact & the mystery over his cause of death
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* his name was changed from "Tutankhaten" for "Living Image of Aten" (Akhenaten's god) to "Tutankhamun," meaning "Living Image of Amun,"
** Amun being the principle New Kingdom god and separating him from his father's legacy of worshipping Aten
* mother was commonly thought to be Nefertiti = incorrect
** DNA identified a mummy called by archaeologists, "Younger Lady" as his mother
** DNA shows that Younger Lady is a full sister of Akhenaten
* speculation that his death was murder = incorrect
** likely cause was a fatal infection following a broken leg bone
** likely cause was a fatal infection following a broken leg bone
** his reign marks decline of 18th Dynasty
* his reign marks decline of 18th Dynasty
* his name was changed from "Tutankhaten" for "Living Image of Aten" (following Akhenaten to "Tutankhamun," meaning "Living Image of Amun," Amun being the principle New Kingdom god
** he ruled for 9 years, dying at age 18
* Tutankhamun is famous because of the 1922 discovery of his intact tomb by the Englishman, Howard Carter
* Tutankhamun is famous because of the 1922 discovery of his intact tomb by the Englishman, Howard Carter
** the tomb was untouched with fabulous artifacts and riches, including his mummy
** the tomb was untouched with fabulous artifacts and riches, including his mummy
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** [http://www.kingtut.org National Geographic website]
** [http://www.kingtut.org National Geographic website]
** [http://www.life.com/gallery/44501#index/0 Life Magazine images of King Tut Exhibit]
** [http://www.life.com/gallery/44501#index/0 Life Magazine images of King Tut Exhibit]
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun Tutankhamun (wiki)]]
** [[https://www.smh.com.au/world/riddle-of-king-tut-dna-unlocks-secrets-20100218-oeqr.html Riddle of King Tut: DNA unlocks secrets (Sydney Morning Herald)]]
</div>
=== Ay and Horemheb ===
* transition from royal line of 18th dynasty
** to bureaucratic / military leaders who installed themselves as pharaohs
click EXPAND for details:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
'''Ay'''
* Ay, who is possibly Nefertiti's father, probably exercised power during Tutankhamen's reign
** Ay succeeded him as full pharaoh
'''Horemheb'''
* Horemheb succeeded Ay as pharaoh and was the last 18th dynasty pharaoh
* political divisions had grown under Akhenaten and his successors
** Horemheb reorganized the kingdom, consolidating power
** commenced the "erasure" of Akhenaten
*** demolished monuments and art of the "Armana period" (period of Akhenaten and his successors)
* Horemheb was son-in-law of Ay
* Ay had tried to install is own son as pharaoh
*** but Horemheb, who was chief general under Tutankhamun and Ay, took power for himself
* Horemheb chose Ramses I to succeed him
</div>
=== Ramses I & Seti ===
* 19th dynasty marks
** reorganization of Egyptian rule & empire
** military expansion
click EXPAND for details on Ramses I and Seti:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
'''Ramses I'''
* ruled 1292-1290 approx
* short rule marked transition from 18th the 19th dynasties
** Ramses was from a military not royal family
** his name meant "Established by the strength of Ra"
''' Seti'''
* ruled 1290–1279 BC approx
* Seti's name meant "Man of Set, beloved of Ptah"
* Seti led military campaigns in to the Middle East
** conquest of Kadesh (in modern Syria) is his greatest military achievement
*** Kadesh had been lost during Akhenaten's rule
*** the Hittites soon re-conquered Kadesh
</div>


===Ramses the Great===
===Ramses the Great===
* Ramses II
* reign: 1279–1213 BC
* reign: 1279–1213 BC
* rules for 66 years
* ruled for 66 years
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* 3rd ruler of 19th Dynasty, and consolidated power after weakening and collapse of 18th dynasty
* 3rd ruler of 19th Dynasty, and consolidated power after weakening and collapse of 18th dynasty
* moved his capital to "Pi-Ramessess" in the Nile Delta
* moved his capital to "Pi-Ramessess" in the Nile Delta
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** battle indecisive
** battle indecisive
** resulted in first diplomatic peace treaty
** resulted in first diplomatic peace treaty
** Ramses returned to Egypt and declared victory:
** Ramses returned to Egypt and declared victory
**** From inscriptions at Luxor: "His majesty slaughtered the armed forces of the Hittites in their entirety, their great rulers and all their brothers ... their infantry and chariot troops fell prostrate, one on top of the other. His majesty killed them ... and they lay stretched out in front of their horses. But his majesty was alone, nobody accompanied him " [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II Ramesses II] (wikipedia)
*** inscriptions at Luxor brag:  
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>"His majesty slaughtered the armed forces of the Hittites in their entirety, their great rulers and all their brothers ... their infantry and chariot troops fell prostrate, one on top of the other. His majesty killed them ... and they lay stretched out in front of their horses. But his majesty was alone, nobody accompanied him " </pre>
* source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II Ramesses II] (wikipedia)
</div>
* Ramses II is often portrayed in popular culture as the pharaoh of Old Testament's Book of Exodus (Moses)
** sources
** sources
*** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh Battle of Kadesh] (wikipedia)
*** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh Battle of Kadesh] (wikipedia)
</div>


===Collapse of New Kingdom===
==Collapse of New Kingdom==
* following the death of Ramses II, was a series of pharaohs who oversaw a decline in Egyptian power
** Ramses II outlived many of his own sons (died in 1213)
** his thirteenth son, Merneptah, was selected as heir after the death of older brothers
*** Merneptah was about 70 years old when he became pharaoh
* over-expansion and constant warfare weakens Egyptian empire
* over-expansion and constant warfare weakens Egyptian empire
* climate change impacts region: more migration into Egypt & destabilizing invasions
* climate change impacts region: more migration into Egypt & destabilizing invasions
** famines under Ramses II (Jewish exodus period) coincidental to collapse of Hittite Empire
** a possible cause is the Hekla 3 volcanic eruption in Iceland
** Egypt suffered crop losses and inflation in grain prices
*** famines resulted
*** economic decline coincidental to decline of Hittite Empire
* Bronze Age collapse:
* Bronze Age collapse:
** collapse coincidental to Mycenean (Greece) decline
** Egypt suffered from reduced flow of the Nile and overall dryer and cooler climate
** Sea Peoples: "mysterious" raiders - likely from Italy or Greece who raided coastal areas of Eastern Mediterranean
** however, Egypt remained intact while most eastern Mediterranean states collapsed
*** Hittite empire fell, Mycenaean Greece collapsed, Assyria weakened, etc. see [[Bronze Age Collapse]] entry
** Sea Peoples:  
*** "mysterious" raiders
*** likely from Italy, Greece, and the Levant who raided coastal areas of Eastern Mediterranean
* Ramses III, from the 20th Dynasty (Ramses II was in 19th Dynasty) ruled 1186-1155
** considered the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom
** held off the Sea Peoples
** famine conditions during final years of his rule may have been caused by a volcanic eruption in Iceland (possibly 1159 BC)
** may have been murdered
*** the "Harem conspiracy", a failed coup led by one of the wives of Ramses III who wanted her son to take over from Ramses III
*** the conspiracy shows that there was political instability
*** 38 people were tried and executed
* following Ramses III, Egypt lost control of its rule in the Levant
** Libyan and Nubian invaders threatened Egypt and took territory
** the last New Kingdom pharaoh was Ramses XI, who died in 1078
** by that time the High Priests of Amun controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt
** Smendes took over as pharaoh and founder of the 21st Dynasty, ruled 1077/76–1052
*** Smendes ruled over a divided and weak Egypt that was invaded by other peoples, including the Libyans (from the west, controlled the Delta), Kushites (from the south, established themselves as pharaohs) and later on by the Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks under Alexander the Great and, marking the end of pharaonic Egypt, the Romans


== Post-Egyptian  
== Post-Egyptian self-rule ==
* Berber rule
* Berber rule
** Amazigh people  
** Amazigh people  
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* Assyrian rule
* Assyrian rule


NOTE: to create new sectino for post-New Kingdom through Ptolomaic rule
NOTE: to create new section for post-New Kingdom through Ptolomaic rule
 
== Architecture ==


* Egyptian architecture was defined by the available resources and geography:
** sandstone
** Nile valley and Nile flooding
** Nile floods allowed for transport of massive rock cuttings


== Architecture ==
===Obelisks===


=== Pyramids ===
=== Pyramids ===
'''Inspiration'''
 
[[File:Benben-stone Pyramidion of the Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Dahshur wiki 350.jpg|frame|right|Benben stone from Wikipedia]]
==== early tombs & monumental structures ====
[[File:Mastaba-faraoun-3.jpg|thumb|Example of a mastaba, a built-up structure over underground tomb]]
* early Egyptians built elaborate underground burial tombs for kings & elites
* these underground tombs began to build up above ground with mud bricks
* mastaba
** = Arabic term for "bench of mud"
** ancient Egyptians called it, "house of stability"
* rectangular, flat-top, mudbrick structure, up to 30 ft high
** bricks were made of clay from the Nile banks, formed and sun-dried
** possibly related to similar Mesopotamian structures
* mastabas were built to protect burial grounds from animals and robbers
** mummification began with these structures, as they did not allow for natural mummification in the ground
* features included:
** chapel-like area above ground for ceremonies and offerings of food & other funerary offerings for the dead
*** the chapel area had a false door to protect against robbers
** oriented North-South, which was important for the buried's access to the afterlife
** two underground chambers, one for the dead and another for materials & goods for the afterlife
* mastabas were continued to be built into the Middle Kingdom
** increasingly complex over time
** some structures began to take shape of pyramids, which were adopted for kings
 
==== Benben stone ====
[[File:Benben-stone Pyramidion of the Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Dahshur wiki 350.jpg|frame|right|Benben stone for Amenemhet III at Dahshur]]
* in the Egyptian creation myth (see below) a pyramid-shaped land rises from otherwise empty waters, a "primeval mound" called "Benben"
* in the Egyptian creation myth (see below) a pyramid-shaped land rises from otherwise empty waters, a "primeval mound" called "Benben"
** thus the Benben represents creation and the origin of the sun
** thus the Benben represents creation and the origin of the sun
** early Egyptians built large earth mounds to represent the the rising land of creation, which was subsequently represented in a pyramid shape of a single block of stone, thus the Benben
** early Egyptians built large earth mounds to represent the the rising land of creation, which was subsequently represented in a pyramid shape of a single block of stone, thus the Benben
''' Old Kingdom pyramid building'''
 
==== Old Kingdom early pyramid building ====
* Step Pyramids
* Step Pyramids
** were the 1st pyramids
** were the 1st pyramids
** built in layers much like Sumerian [[ziggurats]]
** built in layers much like Sumerian [[ziggurats]]
* "true pyramid"  
** considered "true pyramids"  
** gaps between "cake layers" of step pyramids filled in to form smooth surface
*** gaps between "cake layers" of step pyramids filled in to form smooth surface
** used limestone casings
*** used limestone casings
** the capstone, or tip, of the pyramids (and obelisks), called the "pyramidion," were covered in gold leaf, likely to reflect the sunlight and thereby mimic the Egyptian origin myth of the "benben" (see below)
** the capstone, or tip, of the pyramids (and obelisks), called the "pyramidion," were covered in gold leaf, likely to reflect the sunlight and thereby mimic the Egyptian origin myth of the "benben" (see below)
click EXPAND for details on step pyramids
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* Djoser (3rd dynasty, ruled 2691 to 2625 BC):  
* Djoser (3rd dynasty, ruled 2691 to 2625 BC):  
** built the 1st pyramid at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis
** built the 1st pyramid at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis
** step pyramid, construction overseen by the famed vizier, Imhotep
** step pyramid, construction overseen by the famed vizier, Imhotep
** his 3rd dynasty successors, Sekhemkhet, Khaba and Huni never completed their own step pyramids
** his 3rd dynasty successors, Sekhemkhet, Khaba and Huni never completed their own pyramids
** Huni's pyramid = Meidum Pyramid, at Dahsur, south of Memphis
* Sneferu (4th dynasty, 2613-2589 BC) credited with building three pyramids (all at Dahshur)
* Sneferu (4th dynasty, 2613-2589 BC) credited with three pyramids (all at Dahshur)
[[File:02 meidum pyramid.jpg|thumb|02 meidum pyramid|alt=02 meidum pyramid.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Medum Pyramid (wiki)]]
** Meidum pyramid
** '''Meidum pyramid'''
*** started for Huni
*** Sneferu took over construction and had the steps filled in to form true pyramid
*** Sneferu took over construction and had the steps filled in to form true pyramid
*** abandoned construction perhaps due to perceived instability and steep slope (51 degrees)
*** abandoned construction perhaps due to perceived instability and steep slope (51 degrees)
*** it further collapsed during New Kingdom
*** it further collapsed during New Kingdom
** Bent pyramid
** '''Bent pyramid'''
*** very steep at base (55 degrees), then soffter rise near top (43 degrees) make it look "bent"
*** very steep at base (55 degrees), then a gentler rise near top (43 degrees) make it look "bent"
*** importance of this pyramid is that it is the last step in the transition from step to "real" pyramids
*** importance of this pyramid is that it is the last in the transition from step to "real" pyramids
*** the pyramid has a unique passageway between the pyramid and a smaller one that was built for his queen, presumably so that he could visit her in the afterlife
*** the pyramid has a unique passageway between the pyramid and a smaller one that was built for his queen, presumably so that he could visit her in the afterlife
** Red pyramid (3rd largest pyramid at 345 ft)
** '''Red pyramid'''
*** (3rd largest pyramid at 345 ft)
*** = first "true pyramid" designed and built for smooth surface
*** = first "true pyramid" designed and built for smooth surface
*** was tallest structure ever built before Giza
*** was tallest structure ever built before Giza
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*** took 10 - 17 years to build  
*** took 10 - 17 years to build  
*** Snefuru was probably buried here
*** Snefuru was probably buried here
* Great Pyramids at Giza built by the 4th dynasty pharaohs:
</div>
 
==== Great Pyramids ====
[[File:Great Pyramid of Giza edge.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Great Pyramid of Giza edge: Average core blocks of the Great Pyramid weigh about 1.5 tons each, and the granite blocks used to roof the burial chambers are estimated to weigh up to 80 tons each. (wiki)]]
'''summary'''
* at Giza built by the 4th dynasty pharaohs:
* the Great Pyramids at Giza include:
** Khufu (also "Cheops") = "The Great Pyramid"
** Khufu (also "Cheops") = "The Great Pyramid"
** Khafre (also "Chepren")
** Khafre (also "Chepren")
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** the only remaining intact of the Seven Wonders of the World
** the only remaining intact of the Seven Wonders of the World
*** 20 years to construct
*** 20 years to construct
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** other statistics & notes:
** other statistics & notes:
*** incline is 51 degrees
*** incline is 51 degrees
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**** [http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/khufu-pyramid/stone-quarries.html Building the Great Pyramid]
**** [http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/khufu-pyramid/stone-quarries.html Building the Great Pyramid]
**** [http://www.crystalinks.com/gpstats.html Great Pyramid Statistics]
**** [http://www.crystalinks.com/gpstats.html Great Pyramid Statistics]
</div>
* Khafre pyramid at Giza
* Khafre pyramid at Giza
** second largest pyramid at 448 ft, and has a steeper angle of incline than Cheops at 53 degrees
** second largest pyramid at 448 ft, and has a steeper angle of incline than Cheops at 53 degrees
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* Menkure pyramid at Giza
* Menkure pyramid at Giza
** at 204 ft, the smallest of the three Great Pyramids (about the height of the Step Pyramid of Djoser)
** at 204 ft, the smallest of the three Great Pyramids (about the height of the Step Pyramid of Djoser)
click EXPAND for details
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* Labor
* Labor
** the ancient Greeks claimed that the Egyptians built the Great Pyramids with slave labor
** the ancient Greeks claimed that the Egyptians built the Great Pyramids with slave labor
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** first pyramid built in 751 BC at El Kurru, a royal cemetery
** first pyramid built in 751 BC at El Kurru, a royal cemetery
** emulated ancient Egyptian pharaonic practices  
** emulated ancient Egyptian pharaonic practices  
* sources
</div>
 
=== Pyramid building & engineering ===
* materials
** Old Kingdom pyramids were built of stone
*** early Old Kingdom pyramids were made entirely of limestone with gates, ceilings and walls of burial chambers and the outer casing made of high-quality limestone or granite
*** the Great Pyramids are Old Kingdom constructions
** Middle Kingdom pyramids
*** Middle Kingdom pyramids were built of piled mud-bricks covered with limestone
*** later pyramids were built on hills to reduce the amount of brick and stone required
* construction
** Ancient Egyptians were expert rope builders
[[File:Colosse-djéhoutihétep2.jpg|Colosse-djéhoutihétep2|400px|right|thumb|Drawing showing transportation of a colossus. The water poured in the path of the sledge, long dismissed by Egyptologists as ritual, but now confirmed as feasible, served to increase the stiffness of the sand, and likely reduced by 50% the force needed to move the statue.]]
*** they understood the utility of tension and leverage
*** they understood that an incline, or a ramp, spreads the force required to lift a heavy object across the distance of the incline
* click EXPAND for excerpt from wikipedia entry on how an incline helps to life heavy objects:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles; examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad train climbing a grade.
 
Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it straight up, at a cost of an increase in the distance moved. The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. Due to conservation of energy, the same amount of mechanical energy (work) is required to lift a given object by a given vertical distance, disregarding losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance.</pre>
* Source: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclined_plane Inclined Plane (wiki)]]
</div>
* click EXPAND for sources and readings on pyramids
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
** [[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ancient-egypt-shipping-mining-farming-economy-pyramids-180956619/ The World’s Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids (Smithsonian Magazine)]]
** [[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/giza-pyramids Pyramids at Giza (National Geographic)]]
** [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidreligion.htm Why the Ancient Egyptians Built Pyramids - A matter of Religion]
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt 4th Dynasty] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt 4th Dynasty] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_pyramids List of pyramids] (wikipedia)
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_pyramids List of pyramids] (wikipedia)
** [http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/pyramid-building.html Building the Great Pyramid]
** [http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/pyramid-building.html Building the Great Pyramid]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubian_pyramids Nubian Pyramids (wikipedia)]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubian_pyramids Nubian Pyramids (wikipedia)]
** [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidreligion.htm Why the Ancient Egyptians Built Pyramids - A matter of Religion]
</div>
 


==Obelisks==
=== Sphynx ===
* see Luxor dromos, aley of sphynxes


===temples===
===temples===


==Religion==
==Religion==
* not counting pre-dynastic period, the distinct Egyptian civilization lasted over 2,000 years
* therefore, Egyptian religion, myths and gods change (morph) over time
** additionally, across the 800-mile stretch of the Nile, different regions held varied views of the gods & myths
** across ancient Egyptian history gods and stories are intermixed or merged, or derived from one another
===Egyptian cosmos===
===Egyptian cosmos===
* Egypt = center of earth  
* Egypt = center of earth  
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** mountains surround Egypt with "Heavenly River" on outer edge
** mountains surround Egypt with "Heavenly River" on outer edge
*** Egyptians unaware of Nile sources, believed it was the Heavenly River
*** Egyptians unaware of Nile sources, believed it was the Heavenly River
=== Origin Myth ===
 
=== Atum and the origin myth ===
* "Nun" is the empty, divine place of origin of the universe
* "Nun" is the empty, divine place of origin of the universe
* the Benben, a pyramid-shaped jut of land that arose from the waters of Nun
* the Benben, a pyramid-shaped jut of land that arose from the waters (chaos) of Nun
** the creator god Atum lived on the Benben
** the creator god Atum lived on the Benben
** the Benben, therefore, would be the first land to be lit by the sun
** the Benben, therefore, would be the first land to be lit by the sun
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** the Benben is thought to have inspired the shape of the pyramids and the pointed top of obelisks  
** the Benben is thought to have inspired the shape of the pyramids and the pointed top of obelisks  
* Nun is depicted in Middle Kingdom and later temple walls as "the father of the gods"  
* Nun is depicted in Middle Kingdom and later temple walls as "the father of the gods"  
* Ra displaces Atum in the New Kingdom
* Sources:
* Sources:
** [http://www.landofpyramids.org/ben-ben-stone.htm The Benben Stone: Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses for kids (landofpyramids.org)]]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu_(mythology) Nu (mythology) (wikipedia)]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu_(mythology) Nu (mythology) (wikipedia)]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benben Benben]
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benben Benben (wikipedia)]
 
=== Ra ===
* Ra is the sun god and creator god
** identified with the "noon sun"
* Ra is either merged with or a later version of Atum
** Atum was subsequently referred to as Atum-Ra
** Old Kingdom pharaohs were considered "Sons of Ra"
** Middle Kingdom depictions or Ra merged with Atum (or Aumn)
** New Kingdom depictions of Ra focused on his role as carrier of souls of the dead on the "sun boat"
 
=== Amun ===
* was the principle deity of Thebes (Upper Egypt's principal city)
* in New Kingdom became the principal Egyptian deity, the creator, replacing Atum and Ra
** was called Amun-Ra
* New Kingdom Egyptians credited Amun with defeat of the Hyksos
** thus he became protector of the poor or upholder of justice or "Ma'at" (also truth and goodness)
click EXPAND for inscription from an artisan's village on Amun:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>[Amun] who comes at the voice of the poor in distress, who gives breath to him who is wretched..You are Amun, the Lord of the silent, who comes at the voice of the poor; when I call to you in my distress You come and rescue me ... Though the servant was disposed to do evil, the Lord is disposed to forgive. The Lord of Thebes spends not a whole day in anger; His wrath passes in a moment; none remains. His breath comes back to us in mercy ... May your kꜣ be kind; may you forgive; It shall not happen again.</pre>
</div>
* Amun worship became a powerful cult and was merged with Ra into "Amun-Ra"
click EXPAND for text from "Hymn to Amun-Ra"
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
<pre>Lord of truth, father of the gods, maker of men, creator of all animals, Lord of things that are, creator of the staff of life.</pre>
* from [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amun#Early_history Amun: Early History (wiki)]]
</div>
* the pharaoh Akhenaten attempted to suppress the cult of Amun
 
 
=== Atum's children ===
* having arisen from the waters, Atum created the air and the earth
** Atum coughed up or spat out:
*** Shu, god of the air
**** since the air cools, Shu was a god of pacification
*** Tefnut, goddess of moisture and rain
** Shu and Tefnut had two children:
*** Geb, god of the earth
**** he created earthquakes and allowed crops to grow
**** he was associated with healing as well as snakes
*** Nut, goddess stars (thus of the nighttime) and the sky in general
**** Nut was considered a goddess of protection (depicted as a cow or tree covering the sky)
*** Ra, the sun god, decreed that Nut not give birth "any day of the year"
****
** Geb & Nut had four children:
*** Osiris, king of the earth
*** Isis, his queen
*** Set, god of chaos
*** Nephthys, goddess of the dead
 
== Osiris, Isis & Set origin of Egypt myth ==
* in the Egyptian origin myth
** Osiris is god and ruler of Egypt
** Isis is his wife
** Set is his brother, and god of the desert
* jealous of Osiris, Set murders Osiris and spreads his body parts across Egypt
* Isis flies across Egypt and reassembles Osiris, bringing him back to life
* since he already died, Osiris becomes ruler of the afterlife, god of the dead
** Isis becomes a symbol of the passing into eternal life
<pre>“The blood of Isis, the charms of Isis, the power of Isis are a protection unto me.”</pre>
* Set continues to rule Egypt until
** Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, defeats him and becomes ruler of Egypt
 
===The Afterlife===
===The Afterlife===
* Book of the Dead
* Book of the Dead
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* other funerary texts & spells
* other funerary texts & spells
** << to do


===Priests===
===Priests===
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===Mythology & Gods===
===Mythology & Gods===
Sun God: Amon-Re (ah-mun ray)
Pharaoh connect to Amon-Re
notes to do:
* bulleted info  
* bulleted info  
**bulleted info  
**bulleted info  
* bulleted info  
* bulleted info  
**bulleted info
**bulleted info
notes to do:
Isis: goddess, wife of Osiris
Osiris: god, ruled Egypt. Killed by brother, Set
Set, brother of Osiris, chopped up Osiris, and spread his parts over Egypt
Isis saved Osiris. Reassembled his pieces, and brought him back to life
Osiris: becomes God of the dead, instead of God of the living
Isis: symbol of the passing into eternal life
“The blood of Isis, the charms of Isis, the power of Isis are a protection unto me.”
Sun God: Amon-Re (ah-mun ray)
Pharaoh connect to Amon-Re




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- priests were unimpressed
- priests were unimpressed


==Dialy Life==
==Daily Life==
* bulleted info  
* bulleted info  
**bulleted info  
**bulleted info  
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**bulleted info  
**bulleted info  
* Famines and Plagues
* Famines and Plagues


==Social, Political and Economic Structures==
==Social, Political and Economic Structures==
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===Economy===
===Economy===
* bread basket: Egyptian wealth was derived from its tremendous and diverse agricultural production
* principal products & industry
* linen industry based upon flax, a fibrous plant
** bread basket: Egyptian wealth was derived from its tremendous and diverse agricultural production
* livestock, especially in Delta region
** linen industry based upon flax, a fibrous plant, which also yields flax oil
* mining of regional areas, especially the mountains to the East of the Nile
** ship building, including
* Egyptian trade reached across north, upper Nile, and East Africa, the Mediterranean Sea (especially Crete, Phoenicia, and Cyprus), Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Indus India
*** reed boats
* barter system based on weights and measures (no coinage), usually in gold, silver, copper, and gems
**** see [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khufu_ship Khufu ship (wikipedia)]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praise_of_the_Two_Lands_(ship)Praise of the Two Lands (ship) (wikipedia)]] from 2613 under Seneferu (fist ship to bear a name)
* trade was sanctioned by the state (control)
[[File:Giseh Sonnenbarke 07.jpg|thumb|right|450px|The "Praise of the Two Lands" or Khufu ship]]
* [[File:Ancient_Egypt_rope_manufacture.jpg|450|thumb|right|Ancient Egyptians were the first to document tools for ropemaking]]
*** ropes from papyrus (see [[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8686 Rope and Knots in Ancient Egypt]]
*** sail construction from flax
** livestock, especially in Delta region
** mining of regional areas, especially the mountains to the East of the Nile
** exotic animals, ebony and ivory from African interior
 
* Egyptian trade extent
** across north, upper Nile, and East Africa
** the Mediterranean Sea, especially Crete, Phoenicia, and Cyprus
** Levant (Mediterranean coast of west Asia), Mesopotamia and and Indus India via Persian gulf trade routes
** Red sea trade routes, including Arabia and the Horn of Africa
* Egyptian shipping was not confined to the Nile, but for the most part, trade came to Egypt and not the other way around
* Egyptian shipping was not confined to the Nile, but for the most part, trade came to Egypt and not the other way around
* characteristics
** no coinage
** trade was sanctioned by the state (control) and taxed
** barter system based on weights and measures (no coinage), usually in gold, silver, copper, and gems
** the deben was the primary unit of value
*** equivalent to about 90 grams of copper
Click EXPAND for description of the value and use of the deben by James C. Thompson:
<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
* James C. Thompson writes:
<pre>Since seventy-five litters of wheat cost one deben and a pair of sandals also cost one deben, it made perfect sense to the Egyptians that a pair of sandals could be purchased with a bag of wheat as easily as with a chunk of copper. Even if the sandal maker had more than enough wheat, she would happily accept it in payment because it could easily be exchanged for something else. The most common items used to make purchases were wheat, barley, and cooking or lamp oil, but in theory almost anything would do.</pre> Source: [[https://www.ancient.eu/article/997/ancient-egyptian-agriculture/ Ancient Egyptian Agriculture (Ancient History Encyclopedia)]]
</div>
* principal imports:
* principal imports:
** cypress trees from Lebanon (Phoenician trade)
** cypress trees from Lebanon (Phoenician trade)
** copper from Cyprus, tin from Syrian
** copper from Cyprus, tin from Syrian
** dyes from Phoenicia, espeically purple dye
** dyes from Phoenicia, especially purple dye
** myrrh from lower Arabia
** myrrh from lower Arabia
** stones, gems, & minerals from Africa, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Greece, and Indus (lapis lazuli)
** stones, gems, & minerals from Africa, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Greece, and Indus (lapis lazuli)
Line 1,137: Line 1,703:
* sources:
* sources:
** [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/economy/index.html The ancient Egyptian economy]
** [http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/economy/index.html The ancient Egyptian economy]
** [https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-africa/adulis-0012642 Ancient Egyptian Port Adulis]]
** [[https://www.ancient.eu/article/997/ancient-egyptian-agriculture/ Ancient Egyptian Agriculture (Ancient History Encyclopedia)]]


 
*
===Literature===
* Papyrus of Nes-min >> todo
* [http://www.wisdomlib.org/egypt/book/the-book-of-am-tuat/index.html The Book of Am-Tuat: "That Which Is In the Afterworld"]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amduat Amduat "That which is in the afterworld"] wikipedia entry
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_texts Egyptian funerary texts Wikipedia category list]
* [http://egypt-grammar.rutgers.edu/Palermo%20Stone.pdf The Palermo Stone] (pdf file)
** Old Kingdom kings list, shows Menes being conferred kingship by the god Horus; this text was used by Manetho
** see also [http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/palermostone.html Palermo Stone]
* [http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/abydoskl.html Abydos King List] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abydos_King_List Abydos King List] (wikipedia)


==Culture and Cultural & Technological Achievements==
==Culture and Cultural & Technological Achievements==
Line 1,175: Line 1,734:
>> see articles used in WH Fall2011 >> drinking wine etc.
>> see articles used in WH Fall2011 >> drinking wine etc.


===Literature===
* Papyrus of Nes-min >> todo
* [http://www.wisdomlib.org/egypt/book/the-book-of-am-tuat/index.html The Book of Am-Tuat: "That Which Is In the Afterworld"]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amduat Amduat "That which is in the afterworld"] wikipedia entry
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_texts Egyptian funerary texts Wikipedia category list]
* [http://egypt-grammar.rutgers.edu/Palermo%20Stone.pdf The Palermo Stone] (pdf file)
** Old Kingdom kings list, shows Menes being conferred kingship by the god Horus; this text was used by Manetho
** see also [http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/palermostone.html Palermo Stone]
* [http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/abydoskl.html Abydos King List] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abydos_King_List Abydos King List] (wikipedia)
=== Mathematics ===
* extensive, organized agricultural land use required that the ancient Egyptians develop practical geometry and other mathematical calculations
* additionally, cultural and religious focus on tracking the the sun and stars required complex mathematical calculations
* these mathematical skills were applied to Egyptian architecture, which was planned using precise mathematical measurements and calculations.
* math types included
** addition/ subtraction/ multiplication
** fractions
** geometry, esp. for calculating surface area and volume of 3-diminensial structures (architecture and engineering)
** algebra, including quadratic equation
**
==== Numeric system ====
* surviving evidence shows Egyptians used base-10 numeric system
* large dimensions, such as land or buildings, were measured in "cubits"
* had a script to display fractions
** including to use variables, such as 2/n, in unit fractions
** see [[wikipedia:Rhind_Mathematical_Papyrus|Rhind Mathematical Papyrus - Wikipedia]]
[[File:Hieroglyph-numerals base-ten wikipedia screenshot.jpg|none|thumb|294x294px]]
* the number 276 would be represented as:
[[File:Egypt Hieroglyph numbers 276.gif|none|thumb]]
==== addition and subtraction ====
* like many early peoples, Egyptians recorded addition and subtracting using indicators of adding to or taking away numbers
*to add a number would be
**2 <-- 1 = 3
***= adding 1 to 2
** Egyptian symbol for addition = "go in"
[[File:Hiero_D54.png]] (= feet walking towards the first number being added to)<br>
so <big>1 [[File:Hiero_D54.png]] 2 = 3</big>
*to subtract a number would be
**3 --> 1 = 02
***= taking away 1 from 3
** Egyptian symbol for subtraction = "go out"<br>
so <big>3 [[File:Hiero_D55.png]] 1 = 2</big>
[[File:Hiero_D55.png]] (= feet walking away from first number being added to)
* Sources
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics|Ancient Egyptian mathematics (wikipedia)]]
** [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_units_of_measurement|Ancient Egyptian units of measurement (wikipedia)]]


===Gender equality===
===Gender equality===
Line 1,189: Line 1,800:




==Historiography of Egypt==
== Historiography of Egypt ==


===Egyptology===
===Egyptology===
Line 1,197: Line 1,808:
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_Egyptian_chronology wikipedia "Conventional Egyptian chronology"]
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_Egyptian_chronology wikipedia "Conventional Egyptian chronology"]
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_chronology wikipedia "Egyptian chronology"] - this page discusses the problems in establishing Egytian chronologies
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_chronology wikipedia "Egyptian chronology"] - this page discusses the problems in establishing Egytian chronologies
* Egyptian archaeological record:
=== Egyptian archaeological record ===
*** not always reliable: often works of state propoganda
* not always reliable: often works of state propaganda
*** extensive gaps occur between surviving records
* extensive gaps occur between surviving records
*** Egyptian year count based on events and pharoahs whch is difficult to translate to modern dating
* Egyptian year count based on events and pharaohs which is difficult to translate to modern dating
* Manetho of Sebennytus
==== Egyptian timeline via celestial dating ====
** Egyptian high priest (of the sun god Ra) who lived under the Greek king of Egypt, Ptolomey I
* using the path of the Dog Star, Sirius, Egyptologists have been able to correlate the position of the star with the ancient Egyptian calendar
** major work is "Aegyptiaca," the first organized historical overview of ancient Egypt, completed in 271 BC
* since the Egyptian calendar was the basis of the Roman calendar
*** Kings List: of rulers and gods who ruled before the kings
** (which is the basis of the modern European "Gregorian" calendar)
**** kings list was an EGyptican tradition: see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saqqara_King_List Saqqara Tablet]
* knowing that July 19 is the Egyptian date for the rise of Sirius, the Dog Star
**** the list of ruling "dynasties" comes to us from Manetho
** by matching surviving Egyptian records, astronomers and mathematicians were able to date the
*** includes narratives of events across Egyptican history
*** start of the 12th dynasty at 2000 BC
*** written in Greek, most of original is lost
*** start of the 18th dynasty at 1580 BC
*** historians rely on translations by others, notably Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius, all from the Roman era
**** more or less by 3 years
** sources:
** these calculations have allowed for accurate extrapolation of Egyptian records into modern dating
*** (wikipedia entry [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho on Manetho here]
** they also showed the Manetho's timeline was greatly exaggerated
*** [http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1999/127pdf/127093.pdf The First Egyptian Narrative History: Manetho and Greek Historiography] - Academic article
=== Manetho of Sebennytus ===
* Egyptian high priest (of the sun god Ra) who lived under the Greek king of Egypt, Ptolomey I
** lived either in late 3rd century (early 300s) to early 2nd century B.C. (300s-200s BC)
* the name "Menotho" may mean "Truth" or "Gift" of "Thoth" (Egyptian god of the moon, knowledge, writing)
* major work is "Aegyptiaca," the first organized historical overview of ancient Egypt, completed in 271 BC
** Aegyptiaca = "History of Egypt"
* Kings List: of rulers and gods who ruled before the kings
** kings list was an Egyptian tradition: see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saqqara_King_List Saqqara Tablet]
** the list of ruling "dynasties" comes to us from Manetho
** includes narratives of events across Egyptian history
* written in Greek, most of original is lost
** historians rely on translations by others, notably Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius, all from the Roman era
* see essay by [https://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1999/127pdf/127093.pdf John Dillery, The First Egyptian Narrative History: Manetho and Greek Historiography]
<pre>In the early 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Egyptian priest Manetho of Sebennytus wrote a history of his native land in the Greek language. The work is clearly indebted both to Egyptian and Greek texts. Its importance cannot be over stressed: two cultures, and the narrative systems they employed, were brought together in the composition of his Aegyptiaca, or Egyptian Matters. Issues such as the impact of Greek historical writing on Egyptian conceptions of the past, the intended audience of such a work, and the role of the native elite in the Macedonian and Greek governance of Egypt are all opened up through Manetho's work.</pre>
* sources:
** (wikipedia entry [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho on Manetho here]
** [http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1999/127pdf/127093.pdf The First Egyptian Narrative History: Manetho and Greek Historiography] - Academic article
** [http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjacobs/Manetho.html Manetho's "Aegyptiaca"] - images of surviving manuscript
** [http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjacobs/Manetho.html Manetho's "Aegyptiaca"] - images of surviving manuscript
** Greek & Romnanhistorians
=== Herodotus "Histories" ===
*** Herodotus
* Herodotus of Halicarnassus wrote "Histories", which included a study of Egypt
*** translations of Manetho
* Book 2 contains three chapters with subsections:
** Fourth logos: Geography of Egypt
** Fifth logos: customs and animals of Egypt
*** Tyre
*** Egyptian customs
*** The hippopotamus
*** Mummification
** Sixth logos: history of Egypt
*** text: The relief of Sesostris
* for Herodotus's text see:
** [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2131/pg2131-images.html AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT BY HERODOTUS BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES CALLED EUTERPE (Gutenburg)]
** [https://www.livius.org/articles/person/herodotus/herodotus-histories/ Herodotus' Histories (livius.org)] provides commentary about each book of Herodotus
=== Other Histories and ancient visitors ===
* Hecataeus of Miletus, 6th century B.C.
** called, "the father of Geography," a Greek diplomat and philosopher from 6th century BC who had visited Egypt with the Persian court after its conquest of Egypt
** wrote "Journey round the Earth" or "World Survey"
*** survive only in fragments (pieces) or citations from later authors
** Herodotus relied on Hecataeus
* Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, 14th century AD Islamic traveler and writer
** visited Egypt and wrote in wonder of the ancient monuments
** wrote "An Account of Egypt"
** importantly promoted the study and preservation of the archaeological remains in Egypt
=== European "Egyptologists" ===
* following early 19th century French invasion of Egypt, the land was opened up to European visitors
* especially under later British rule, historians investigated the ancient archeology and texts and translated earlier texts from the Greeks, especially


*** Islamic histories of ancient Egypt
== Ancient Egypt Vocabulary ==
== Ancient Egypt Vocabulary ==
* black land / red land
* black land / red land
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==External Resources==
==External Resources==
===Websites===
===Websites===
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt (wikipedia)]
* [http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt (simple wikipedia]
* [http://www.touregypt.net Tour Egypt] has a variety of useful articles on Ancient Egypt that include bibliographies
* [http://www.touregypt.net Tour Egypt] has a variety of useful articles on Ancient Egypt that include bibliographies
* [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/geography/index.html British Museum Ancient Egypt pages] with student readings and easy to read content material
* [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/geography/index.html British Museum Ancient Egypt pages] with student readings and easy to read content material
* [[http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/Welcome.html Digital Egypt for Universities]
* [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/Welcome.html Digital Egypt for Universities]
* [http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Time_line_history_of_Egypt detailed timeline from Answers.com]
* [http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Time_line_history_of_Egypt detailed timeline from Answers.com]
* [http://www.pbs.org/empires/egypt/newkingdom/index.html Egypt's Goldent Empire by PBS]
* [http://www.pbs.org/empires/egypt/newkingdom/index.html Egypt's Goldent Empire by PBS]
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* bulleted link to other related internal or web articles
* bulleted link to other related internal or web articles


== Ancient Egypt in modern popular culture ==
* Steve Martin, SNL "King Tut" skit & dance
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FYbavuReVF4 YouTube]


==Lesson Plans & Teaching Ideas==
==Lesson Plans & Teaching Ideas==
See Essential Questions << link
=== Egypt Main ideas for students ===
=== Egypt Main ideas for students ===
* role of geography  
* role of geography  
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=== Other Student Projects and Investigations ===
=== Other Student Projects and Investigations ===
* Evaluate why did Thutmose III and his son erase Hatsepsut's legacy? What are the theories, what do you think?
* Evaluate why did Thutmose III and his son erase Hatshepsut's legacy? What are the theories, what do you think?
* Why was Akhenaton unable to impose monotheism upon Egypt?
* Why was Akhenaton unable to impose monotheism upon Egypt?


===Readings for students===
===Readings for students===
* [http://www.amazon.com/Book-Ancient-World-Dorothy-Mills/dp/159731353X/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1311789900&sr=1-1] "The Book of the Ancient World" by Dorothy Mills (1927, 2007 reprint) which has young reader level, descriptive and narrative stories about Ancient Egyptians (see especially the "A Visit to Thebes" chapter which describes a fictional visit to Egypt by a Phoenician trader and his son)
* Books:
** [http://www.amazon.com/Book-Ancient-World-Dorothy-Mills/dp/159731353X/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1311789900&sr=1-1] "The Book of the Ancient World" by Dorothy Mills (1927, 2007 reprint) which has young reader level, descriptive and narrative stories about Ancient Egyptians (see especially the "A Visit to Thebes" chapter which describes a fictional visit to Egypt by a Phoenician trader and his son)
** [https://archive.org/details/a-history-of-egypt-from-the-earliest-times-to-the-persian-conquest-1905 "A History of Egypt From The Earliest Times To The Persian Conquest" by James Breasted, 1905 (archive.org)]
* Web collections:
** https://www.pbs.org/empires/egypt/index.html "Egypt's Golden Empire" (PBS.org on the New Kingdom)]
* tomb inscriptions can be especially revealing; some that are accessible to students include:
* tomb inscriptions can be especially revealing; some that are accessible to students include:
** [http://www.kenseamedia.com/encyclopedia/ppp/instructions_ptah_hotep.htm Ptah-Hotep] entry from AAA Encyclopedia with "the Instruction of Ptah-Hotep"
** [http://www.kenseamedia.com/encyclopedia/ppp/instructions_ptah_hotep.htm Ptah-Hotep] entry from AAA Encyclopedia with "the Instruction of Ptah-Hotep"
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27at Papyrus of Ani with the Spell of Maat] (wikipedia) - the "Forty-Two Declarations of Purity" make interesting reading for students to evaluate Egyptian faith and everyday life
** [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27at Papyrus of Ani with the Spell of Maat] (wikipedia) - the "Forty-Two Declarations of Purity" make interesting reading for students to evaluate Egyptian faith and everyday life
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
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