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'''Grammar''' | '''Grammar''' | ||
* = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words) | * = is from the Greek "art of letters" (words) | ||
* technically, grammar is | |||
** '''phonology''' = sounds that create word parts and words) | |||
** '''morphology''' = how words are formed and interact with each other | |||
** '''syntax''' = rules for the arrangement of words to create meaning | |||
*** syntax defines the semantical purpose (meaning) of language | |||
'''Article purpose''' | '''Article purpose''' | ||
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*** ''-ent'' = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun) | *** ''-ent'' = having the condition of (the suffix indicates a noun) | ||
* constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence | * constituent parts of a sentence are those that we can consider coherent elements or groupings within a sentence | ||
** constituent parts operates as an | ** constituent parts operates as an hierarchy | ||
*** i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun | *** i.e,. "Sam and I" = noun phrase that is made up of a noun + a conjunction + a noun | ||
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* the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word | * the subject of a sentence may not logically be a single word | ||
** a phrase = 2 or more words that do not contain a finite verb (verb that has a subject) | |||
* a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence | * a "subject phrase" is two or more words that collectively act as the "doer" or subject of a sentence | ||
** ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?" | ** ex. "The conditions are poor" is a complete sentence and thought, but lacks important details as to "conditions" of what?" | ||
*** so a more complete "subject phrase" might be, | *** so a more complete "subject phrase" might be, | ||
**** "''The weather conditions'' are poor" | **** "''The '''weather conditions''''' are poor" | ||
**** "''The conditions of those teams'' are poor" | **** "''The '''conditions of those teams''''' are poor" | ||
**** "''Being smart'' helps on that test" | **** "'''''Being smart''''' helps on that test" | ||
=== subject clause === | |||
* just as a subject may be a compound phrase ("'''Getting there''' is the best part of the trip"), a noun clause (contains a finite verb) may act as a subject (or object). | |||
* noun clauses tend to use "that" as a subordinating conjunction that creates the noun clause | |||
* ex. | |||
** '''''The team that played smarter, not harder''', won.''SUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause --------------> | | |||
** ''A question I thought about beforehand escaped me when it was time to ask it''SUBJECT | VERB |<---------------- subject clause ---------> | | |||
== Object == | == Object == | ||
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=== object complement === | === object complement === | ||
* a word that modifies | * a word that modifies a direct object | ||
** that is, it adds information to a direct object | |||
*** as opposed to a subject complement, which adds information to a subject | |||
** usually a noun, pronoun or adjective | |||
* object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action | * object complements follow verbs that express both an object of an action and a recipient of that action | ||
** such as, ''appoint, call, create, declare, direct, elect, tell'' | ** such as, ''appoint, call, choose, create, declare, direct, elect, make, name, tell'' | ||
*** ''The committee appointed her president'' | *** ex. to appoint: | ||
*** ''My mom declared the cookies out of bounds'' | **** ''The committee appointed her.'' | ||
***** her = the recipient of the action (direct object) | |||
** if we add a complement to the object, we are describing what she was appointed to: | |||
*** ''The committee appointed her president.'' | |||
**** note that "president" is not an indirect object | |||
***** it is not the recipient of "appoint" therefore it is a "complement" to the object | |||
**** ex. | |||
***** ''The teacher considers the student '''worthy''''' (object complement adjective) | |||
***** ''The workers painted the wall '''white''''' (object complement noun) | |||
* object complements can also come in the form of phrases or clauses | |||
** ''My mom declared the cookies '''out of bounds''''' (prepositional phrase) | |||
** ''The team selected the player '''who was the best''''' (relative clause object complement) | |||
== Predicate == | == Predicate == | ||
* from Latin ''praedicatum'' for "something declared" | * from Latin ''praedicatum'' for "something declared" | ||
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** "The kids are hungry" | ** "The kids are hungry" | ||
{{Clause (grammar)}} | == Clause == | ||
{{:Clause (grammar)}} | |||
== Phrase == | == Phrase == | ||
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** [https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/phrase.htm The Phrase (chompchomp.com)] | ** [https://www.chompchomp.com/terms/phrase.htm The Phrase (chompchomp.com)] | ||
** [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-phrases.html English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)] | ** [https://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-phrases.html English Phrases: Everything You Need to Know (english-grammar-revolution.com)] | ||
=== absolute phrase === | |||
* modifies the main clause of a sentence | |||
** and not just a single word | |||
* contains a noun and an adjective | |||
** the adjective can be a prepositional phrase or a past or present participle adjective | |||
* absolute phrases add non-essential information to a sentence | |||
=== adjective phrase === | === adjective phrase === | ||
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*** well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle) | *** well-adjusted = an adjective made up of "well" (adverb) + "adjusted" (past participle) | ||
=== adverb or adverbial phrase === | === adverb phrase or adverbial phrase === | ||
* two or more words that operate as an adverb to modify an action | |||
* examples: | |||
** ''I'm staying '''until closing'''''" | |||
** '''''She'll be there '''in a minute'''''* | |||
*** * note that when a prepositional phrase acts as an adverb, it is technically an adverbial phrase | |||
** ''He ran '''very quickly''''' | |||
=== appositive phrase === | |||
* "appositive" is an adjective that means "next to" | |||
** prefix '''''ap-''''' = towards | |||
*** (related to the prefix "ad", but switches to "ap" when placed before a "P" | |||
*** such as "apparent" which means "ap"/into + "parare"/visible, i.e. "into view or sight" | |||
** root '''''posit''''' = is from Latin ''ponere'' for "to place", i.e., "in position" | |||
** suffix -'''''ive''''' makes an adjective (from a verb) | |||
* the '''appositive phrase''' is two or more words that are next to another word in order to clarify, define, or identify it | |||
** note: a phrase is two or more words that does not contain a subject-verb | |||
** ex. | |||
*** ''"Jonas Samson''', a doctor of law,''' practices on the higher court"'' | |||
*** ''"My friend '''Tony the Shark''' is an excellent card player"'' | |||
*** ''"'''A thoughtful person''', she gives good advice"'' | |||
*** ''"'''An expert on trees, soil, and insects''', arborists have great information to help design your garden"'' | |||
** a single noun can be "in apposition" (thus it is not a phrase) | |||
*** sometimes called "an appositive" (even though the words is technically an adjective) | |||
*** ex. | |||
**** ''"My friend '''Tony''' is an excellent card player"'' | |||
**** Ringing bells | |||
** when in the form of a clause, the apposition is a noun clause | |||
*** a clause has a subject + verb | |||
=== complement or requisite phrase === | === complement or requisite phrase === | ||
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=== infinitive phrase === | === infinitive phrase === | ||
* | * infinitive = the "to" form of a verb | ||
** but that | * infinitives acts as a noun, adjective or adverb | ||
*** | * infinitives are formed by adding the particle "to" before a verb | ||
** the infinitive indicates an action not as a direct action (verb) but as a thing or descriptor that indicates some action | |||
**** i.e. it is the object of what "I decided" | *** i.e., "to run" can be a noun, adjective or adverb, but it still indicates the action "run" | ||
**** "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go" | * infinitive as a <u>noun</u>: | ||
** | ** "'''''To go''' is the best decision"'' | ||
*** "to go" is the subject of the sentence | |||
** "''I decided '''to go''' to the park''" | |||
* note | *** "to go" is the direct object of the subject-verb "I decided" | ||
**** i.e. it is the object of what "I decided" | |||
**** note that "to the park" is prepositional phrase that acts like an adverb that describes "to go", as in "where [I decided] to go" | |||
** "''The teacher reminded the class '''to study''' for the test tomorrow"'' | |||
*** "the class" is the object of "the teacher reminded" and "to study" is an adverb that describes the verb "reminded" | |||
*** "to study" may also be seen as a "object complement" in that it serves as the object of "reminded the class" | |||
* infinitive as an adjective | |||
** "''The dog wanted the cake '''to drop''' on the floor"'' | |||
*** "to drop" is an adjective that describes the "cake" | |||
* infinitive as an adverb | |||
** ''"Jonesy drove himself '''to learn"''''' | |||
*** "to learn" is an adverb that describes the verb "drove" | |||
**** note that in this sentence, "Jonesy drove himself to school", the "to" is a preposition and not a particle | |||
* sometimes the "to" is dropped although the verb is still an infinitive: | |||
** ex. "The waiter made me wait" | ** ex. "The waiter made me wait" | ||
*** "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait") | *** "wait" can be a noun, but here it is acting as an infinitive verb (the action "to wait") | ||
* infinitives can have their own objects | |||
** ''She bought flowers to make him happy'' | |||
*** "to make" modifies "bought" (as an adverb) or "flowers" (as an adjective) | |||
*** "him" is the object of the infinitive "to make" | |||
**** "happy" is the object complement of "him" | |||
* see: [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)] | * see: [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/gerunds_participles_and_infinitives/infinitives.html Infinitives (owl.purdue.edu)] | ||
=== introductory phrase === | |||
* introduces a main clause | |||
* generally followed by a comma to separate it from the main clause | |||
* types of introductory phrases | |||
** absolute phrase (''Tools in hand'', I went to work without reading the manual) | |||
** appositive phrase (''Quite useful'', the manual is a must-read) | |||
** infinitive phrase (''To know how'', you need to read the manual'')'' | |||
** participial phrase (''Not knowing how'', I had to read the manual) | |||
** prepositional phrase (''Inside the box'', you will find the manual) | |||
=== noun phrase === | === noun phrase === | ||
* two or more words that together act as a noun | * two or more words that together act as a noun | ||
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* see [https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/gerund-phrase/ Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)] | * see [https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/gerund-phrase/ Gerund Phrase (gingersoftware.com)] | ||
=== participial phrase === | === participial or participle phrase === | ||
* a type of adjective phrase | * a type of adjective phrase | ||
* participial phrases "show" (describe, act as modifier) rather than "tell" (show action) | |||
* uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective | * uses the -ing or -ed form of a verb that acts as an adjective | ||
** note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund) | ** note that the "-ing" form of a verb can also be a verb (participle) or a noun (gerund) | ||
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*** the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective | *** the present participle (-ing form) acts as an adjective | ||
*** so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work" | *** so the phrase, "Thinking I was late" is an adjective phrase (using a participial) that adds descriptive information to the main clause, "I rushed to work" | ||
** or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late" | ** or can also follow the main clause, as in : "I rushed to work, thinking I was late"\ | ||
=== prepositional phrase === | === prepositional phrase === | ||
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== Style & usage == | == Style & usage == | ||
>> note: to create larger entry for style & usage to be linked here << | |||
=== active versus passive voice === | |||
==== active voice==== | |||
* = the subject and verb are directly stated | |||
** as in, ''He gave the dog a bone'' = subject + verb + indirect object + object | |||
* transitive verbs (which require an object) are always active voice | |||
** ''I ate the entire pizza'' | |||
==== passive voice ==== | |||
* = the verb acts upon the subject, i.e., the subject follows the verb | |||
** as in, ''The dog was given a bone by them'' = object + verb + subject (+ prep/phrase) | |||
* passive voice uses the auxiliary verb "to be" + the past participle of the action verb | |||
** as in, ''The entire pizza '''was eaten''' by me'' | |||
* when to use passive voice: | |||
** passive voice shifts the emphasis from the subject to the object of the sentence | |||
*** so if the object of the sentence is the important idea, then passive voice is fine | |||
*** especially if the subject is irrelevant to the idea: | |||
*** ex. ''The dog was given a bone'' | |||
**** focus is on the dog and the bone, and we don't need to state who gave it the bone | |||
* passive voice can be "weaselly" when used to avoid responsibility for something: | |||
** Son: "''Dad, your favorite glass was broken''" | |||
** Father: "''Who broke it?''" | |||
** Son: "''Uh, somebody...''" | |||
* see | |||
** [[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/ Active vs. Passive Voice (grammarly.com)]] | |||
=== periods === | === periods === | ||
* inside or outside qoutations? | * inside or outside qoutations? | ||
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== Conjunction == | == Conjunction == | ||
* conjunctions combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses) | * conjunctions conjoin, combine or coordinate words and phrases (clauses) | ||
=== conjunctions that combine words ==== | |||
* coordinators | |||
** coordinate or combine individual words or phrases: | |||
*** as in: | |||
**** ''apples '''and''' oranges are similar '''and''' distinct fruits'' | |||
**** ''I only like apples '''or''' oranges that are ripe'' | |||
**** | |||
* correlative conjunction | |||
** creates a combination or contrast of actions or ideas: | |||
** ''and, or'', ''neither, nor'', etc. | |||
* | |||
=== | ==== conjunctions that combine sentence parts ==== | ||
* | ** coordinating conjunction | ||
* | ** subordinating conjunction (SWABI) | ||
** | ==== conjunctions that coordinate or conjoin ideas==== | ||
** conjunctive adverb | |||
* see | |||
** [[Parts of speech#Conjunction]] for more on conjunctions | |||
* see | |||
** [[ | |||
== Introductory clauses & phrases == | == Introductory clauses & phrases == | ||
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=== introductory phrase === | === introductory phrase === | ||
* a phrase that introduces an independent clause | |||
** usually a prepositional phrase or a participial phrase | |||
*** ''"'''On Thursdays''', I get out."'' (prepositional phrase) | |||
*** '''''"Feeling hungry,''' I bought some fries"'' (participial phrase) | |||
== Modifiers | == Modifiers == | ||
* modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence | * modifiers change or add or "modify" the meaning of a word or sentence | ||
* modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader | * modifiers provide or extent additional meaning to the reader | ||
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** absolute phrase | ** absolute phrase | ||
** Nouns as modifiers | ** Nouns as modifiers | ||
=== intensifiers === | === intensifiers === | ||
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* [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)] | * [https://school4schools.com/wiki/index.php?title=Word_Parts_of_Speech_%26_Grammar_Rules#very for Parts of Speech entry on "Very" (s4s wiki)] | ||
=== qualifiers === | |||
* qualifiers limit, or "qualify," the meaning of a word | |||
* qualifiers can be adverbs or determiners | |||
* types of qualifiers: | |||
** adverbs: ''always, frequently sometimes, usually,'' | |||
** determiners: ''few, many, some,'' | |||
=== modifier errors: dangling modifiers === | |||
* a modifier that has no word or phrase to modify | |||
** i.e., it stands by itself, which is inherently illogical since a modifier must have something to modify | |||
** usually, dangling modifiers occur with participial phrases (using the -ing present participle) or prepositional phrases | |||
** dangling modifiers frequently mistake the target of the modification, such as modifying one thing, then discussing another | |||
** examples: | |||
** wrong: ''While playing around, it was late'' | |||
*** correct: ''While playing around, I noticed it was late" | |||
** wrong: ''Driving to school, I forgot my homework'' | |||
*** correct: ''Driving to school, I realized I forgot my homework'' | |||
=== modifier errors: misplaced modifiers === | |||
* a modifier that is next to or seemingly modifies the word or phrase | |||
* examples. | |||
** wrong: ''The student failed the test in the back of the class'' | |||
*** correct: ''The student in the back of the class failed the test'' | |||
** wrong: ''The teacher gave a grade to the student that was really good'' | |||
*** correct: ''The teacher gave a really good grade to the student'' | |||
=== modifier errors: pre and post adverbs === | |||
* modifier placement can change the meaning of a sentence: | |||
* example: | |||
** ''The student almost failed every test'' | |||
** v. ''The student failed almost every test'' | |||
*** here the modifier "almost" is an adverb | |||
** ''The mechanic only works on trucks on Tuesdays'' | |||
*** = on Tuesdays the mechanic works on trucks and nothing else | |||
** v. ''The mechanic works on trucks only on Tuesdays'' | |||
*** = it is only on Tuesdays that the mechanic will work on trucks (but might also work on cars, as well) | |||
== Sentence diagramming == | == Sentence diagramming == | ||
* diagraming sentences means identifying | [[File:Purported-purpose-of-punctuation-diagram.jpg|450px|right|The diagrammed sentence is build around the core subject-verb]] | ||
* | * diagraming sentences means identifying word and sentence parts | ||
* | ** and arranging them according to their relationship to the main clause/s of the sentence | ||
** | * sentence diagrams help students to understand the grammatical mechanics of a sentence | ||
* while not taught in schools, sentence diagramming can be empowering | |||
* see [[Parts of Speech]] | |||
* here for a diagrammed sentence showing noun phrases: | |||
** [https://parentingpatch.com/using-nouns-noun-phrases-object-complements/ Using Nouns and Noun Phrases as Object Complements (parentingpatch.com)] | |||
** [https://parentingpatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2013-03-09-Using-Nouns-and-Noun-Phrases-as-Object-Complements-1.jpg Click here for diagrammed sentence image (parentingpatch.com)] | |||
== vocabulary & definitions == | == vocabulary & definitions == | ||
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=== Idiom/ Idiomatic === | === Idiom/ Idiomatic === | ||
* grammatical idiom | |||
** words or phrases that are used simply because they are used | |||
** = don't have specific rules | |||
** note: prepositions are not idiomatic | |||
* idiom as sayings or expressions | |||
** idioms are common sayings that express an idea figuratively | |||
*** but if taken literally are nonsensical | |||
** ex. | |||
*** "''Don't beat around the bush''" | |||
*** "''Chip off the old block''" | |||
*** "''Got the extra mile''" | |||
=== Phrase === | === Phrase === | ||
=== Grammatical oddities === | |||
==== anacoluthon ==== | |||
>> see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacoluthon |